1. Formation and petrology
     Serpentinite reactions   Hydrogen production by anaerobic oxidation of fayalite ferrous ions  Reactions  Abiotic methane production on Mars by serpentinization  Serpentinization on Enceladus 

2. Impact on agriculture

3. Uses
    Decorative stone in architecture  Carvingstone tools, oil lamp-known as the Qulliq and Inuit sculpture  Swiss ovenstone  Neutron shield in nuclear reactors 

4. Cultural references

5. See also

6. References

7. External links

Formation and petrology

Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature metamorphic process involving heat and water in which low-silica mafic and ultramafic rocks are oxidized (anaerobic oxidation of Fe²⁺ by the protons of water leading to the formation of H₂) and hydrolyzed with water into serpentinite. Peridotite, including dunite, at and near the seafloor and in mountain belts is converted to serpentine, brucite, magnetite, and other minerals — some rare, such as awaruite (Ni₃Fe), and even native iron. In the process large amounts of water are absorbed into the rock increasing the volume, reducing the density and destroying the structure.^[3]

The density changes from 3.3 to 2.7 g/cm³ with a concurrent volume increase on the order of 30-40%. The reaction is highly exothermic and rock temperatures can be raised by about {{convert|260|Celsius}},^[3] providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic hydrothermal vents. The magnetite-forming chemical reactions produce hydrogen gas under anaerobic conditions prevailing deep in the mantle, far from the Earth's atmosphere. Carbonates and sulfates are subsequently reduced by hydrogen and form methane and hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide provide energy sources for deep sea chemotroph microorganisms.^[3]

Serpentinite reactions

Serpentinite is formed from olivine via several reactions, some of which are complementary. Olivine is a solid solution between the magnesium-endmember forsterite and the iron-endmember fayalite. Serpentinite reaction 1a and 1b, below, exchange silica between forsterite and fayalite to form serpentine group minerals and magnetite. These are highly exothermic reactions.

Reaction 1c describes the hydration of olivine with water only to yield serpentine and Mg(OH)₂ (brucite).^[4] Serpentine is stable at high pH in the presence of brucite like calcium silicate hydrate, (C-S-H) phases formed along with portlandite (Ca(OH)₂) in hardened Portland cement paste after the hydration of belite (Ca₂SiO₄), the artificial calcium equivalent of forsterite.

After reaction, the poorly soluble reaction products (aqueous silica or dissolved magnesium ions) can be transported in solution out of the serpentinized zone by diffusion or advection.

A similar suite of reactions involves pyroxene-group minerals, though less readily and with complication of the additional end-products due to the wider compositions of pyroxene and pyroxene-olivine mixes. Talc and magnesian chlorite are possible products, together with the serpentine minerals antigorite, lizardite, and chrysotile. The final mineralogy depends both on rock and fluid compositions, temperature, and pressure. Antigorite forms in reactions at temperatures that can exceed {{convert|600|C|F|abbr=on}} during metamorphism, and it is the serpentine group mineral stable at the highest temperatures. Lizardite and chrysotile can form at low temperatures very near the Earth's surface. Fluids involved in serpentinite formation commonly are highly reactive and may transport calcium and other elements into surrounding rocks; fluid reaction with these rocks may create metasomatic reaction zones enriched in calcium and called rodingites.

In the presence of carbon dioxide, however, serpentinitization may form either magnesite (MgCO₃) or generate methane (CH₄). It is thought that some hydrocarbon gases may be produced by serpentinite reactions within the oceanic crust.

or, in balanced form:

Reaction 2a is favored if the serpentinite is Mg-poor or if there isn't enough carbon dioxide to promote talc formation. Reaction 2b is favored in highly magnesian compositions and low partial pressure of carbon dioxide.

The degree to which a mass of ultramafic rock undergoes serpentinisation depends on the starting rock composition and on whether or not fluids transport calcium, magnesium and other elements away during the process. If an olivine composition contains sufficient fayalite, then olivine plus water can completely metamorphose to serpentine and magnetite in a closed system. In most ultramafic rocks formed in the Earth's mantle, however, the olivine is about 90% forsterite endmember, and for that olivine to react completely to serpentine, magnesium must be transported out of the reacting volume.

Serpentinitization of a mass of peridotite usually destroys all previous textural evidence because the serpentine minerals are weak and behave in a very ductile fashion. However, some masses of serpentinite are less severely deformed, as evidenced by the apparent preservation of textures inherited from the peridotite, and the serpentinites may have behaved in a rigid fashion.

Hydrogen production by anaerobic oxidation of fayalite ferrous ions

Serpentine is the product of the reaction between water and fayalite's ferrous (Fe²⁺) ions.^[5][6]

Reactions

Considering three formula units of fayalite (Fe₂(SiO₄)) for the purpose of stoichiometry and reaction mass balance, four ferrous ions will undergo oxidation by water protons while the two remaining will stay unoxidised. Neglecting the orthosilicate anions not involved in the redox process, it is then possible to schematically write the two half-redox reactions as follows:

The process is of interest because it generates hydrogen gas.

The two unoxidised ferrous (Fe²⁺) ions still available in the three formula units of fayalite finally combine with the four ferric (Fe³⁺) cations and oxide anions (O²⁻) to form two formula units of magnetite (Fe₃O₄).

Finally, considering the required rearrangement of the orthosilicate anions into free silica (SiO₂) and free oxide anions (O²⁻), it is possible to write the complete reaction of anaerobic oxidation and hydrolysis of fayalite according to the following mass balance:

This reaction resembles the Schikorr reaction observed in the anaerobic oxidation of the ferrous hydroxide in contact with water:

Abiotic methane production on Mars by serpentinization

The presence of traces of methane in the atmosphere of Mars has been hypothesized to be a possible evidence for life on Mars if methane was produced by bacterial activity. Serpentinization has been proposed as an alternative non-biological source for the observed methane traces.^[7]

Serpentinization on Enceladus

Using data from the Cassini probe flybys obtained in 2010–12, scientists were able to confirm that Saturn's moon Enceladus likely has a liquid water ocean beneath its frozen surface. A model suggests that the ocean on Enceladus has an alkaline pH of 11–12.^[8] The high pH is interpreted to be a key consequence of serpentinization of chondritic rock, that leads to the generation of H₂, a geochemical source of energy that can support both abiotic and biological synthesis of organic molecules.^[8][9]

Impact on agriculture

Soil cover over serpentinite bedrock tends to be thin or absent. Soil with serpentine is poor in calcium and other major plant nutrients, but rich in elements toxic to plants such as chromium and nickel.^[10]

Uses

Decorative stone in architecture

Grades of serpentinite higher in calcite, along with the verd antique (breccia form of serpentinite), have historically been used as decorative stones for their marble-like qualities. College Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, for example, is constructed out of serpentine. Popular sources in Europe before contact with the Americas were the mountainous Piedmont region of Italy and Larissa, Greece.^[11]

Carvingstone tools, oil lamp-known as the Qulliq and Inuit sculpture

Swiss ovenstone

A variety of chlorite talc schist associated with Alpine serpentinite is found in Val d’Anniviers, Switzerland and was used for making "ovenstones" (Ger. Ofenstein), a carved stone base beneath a cast iron stove.^[12]

Neutron shield in nuclear reactors

Serpentinite has a significant amount of bound water, hence it contains abundant hydrogen atoms able to slow down neutrons by elastic collision (neutron thermalization process). Because of this serpentinite can be used as dry filler inside steel jackets in some designs of nuclear reactors. For example, in RBMK series it was used for top radiation shielding to protect operators from escaping neutrons.^[13] Serpentine can also be added as aggregate to special concrete used in nuclear reactor shielding to increase the concrete density (2.6 g/cm³) and its neutron capture cross section.^[14][15]

Cultural references

It is the state rock of California, USA and the California Legislature specified that serpentine was "the official State Rock and lithologic emblem."^[16] In 2010, a bill was introduced which would have removed serpentine's special status as state rock due to it potentially containing chrysotile asbestos.^[17] The bill met with resistance from some California geologists, who noted that the chrysotile present is not hazardous unless it is mobilized in the air as dust.^[18]

See also

• {{annotated link|Carbon sequestration}}
• {{annotated link|Cement chemist notation}}, also useful for silicate and oxide reactions in mineralogy
• {{annotated link|Chrysotile#Chemical properties|Chrysotile dehydration}}
• {{annotated link|Mineral redox buffer#Common redox buffers and mineralogy|Common redox mineral buffer}} – FMQ: fayalite-magnetite-quartz
• {{annotated link|Lizard complex|Geology of the Lizard peninsula}}
• {{annotated link|Belite#Hydration|Hydration of belite in cement}} (analogous to forsterite hydration)
• {{annotated link|Lost City Hydrothermal Field}}
• {{annotated link|Nephrite}}
• {{annotated link|Schikorr reaction}}, involving also the formation of magnetite and hydrogen by a very similar mechanism
• {{annotated link|Serpentine soil}}, a soil derived from serpentine minerals
• {{annotated link|Serpentine subgroup}}, the main minerals comprising serpentinite
• {{annotated link|Soapstone}}
• {{annotated link|Talc carbonate}}
• Hydrogen Cycle

References

External links

•   The Lost City hydrothermal field, Mid-Atlantic ridge: serpentinization, the driving force of the system.
• H₂-rich fluids from serpentinization: Geochemical and biotic implications: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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