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词条 List of languages by type of grammatical genders
释义

  1. No grammatical gender

     Noun classifiers 

  2. Masculine and feminine

  3. Common and neuter

  4. Animate and inanimate

  5. Masculine, feminine, and neuter

  6. More than three grammatical genders

  7. References

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This article lists languages depending on their approach to grammatical gender.

No grammatical gender

Certain language families, such as the Austronesian, Turkic and Uralic language families have no grammatical genders (see genderless language).

  • Ainu
  • Afrikaans (Indo-European; Afrikaans has three gendered pronouns, but not other grammatical gender, very similar to English.)
  • Armenian (Indo-European)
  • Azerbaijani (Turkic)
  • Bashkir (Turkic)
  • Basque
  • Carolinian (Austronesian)
  • Chamoru (Austronesian)
  • Cebuano
  • Chuvash (Turkic)
  • Crimean Tatar (Turkic)
  • English (Indo-European; English has three gendered pronouns, but no longer has grammatical gender in the sense of noun class distinctions.)
  • Esperanto (Constructed; Esperanto has two gendered pronouns, and separate endings to distinguish natural gender, although there is a movement for gender reform in Esperanto)[1]
  • Estonian (Uralic)
  • Finnish (Uralic)
  • Gagauz (Turkic)
  • Georgian
  • Gilbertese (Austronesian)
  • Greenlandic
  • Guarani
  • Haitian Creole
  • Hungarian (Uralic)
  • Ido (Constructed)[2]
  • Ilokano (Austronesian)
  • Javanese (Austronesian)
  • Karachay-Balkar (Turkic)
  • Karakalpak (Turkic)
  • Kazakh (Turkic)
  • Khakas (Turkic)
  • Konkani (Indo-European)
  • Kumyk (Turkic)
  • Kyrgyz (Turkic)
  • Lao
  • Lingua Franca Nova (Constructed)
  • Lojban (Constructed)[3]
  • Malagasy (Austronesian)
  • Malayalam
  • Manchu - used vowel harmony in gender inflections.
  • Maori (Austronesian)
  • Marshallese (Austronesian)
  • Mongolian
  • Nahuatl (Uto-Aztecan)
  • Nauruan (Austronesian)
  • Niuean (Austronesian)
  • Nogai (Turkic)
  • Ossetic (Indo-European)
  • Palauan (Austronesian)
  • Rapa Nui (Austronesian)
  • Salar (Turkic)
  • Samoan (Austronesian)
  • Shor (Turkic)
  • Southern Quechua
  • Sundanese (Austronesian)
  • Tagalog (Austronesian)
  • Tahitian (Austronesian)
  • Tatar (Turkic)
  • Tetum (Austronesian)
  • Tongan (Austronesian)
  • Turkish (Turkic)
  • Turkmen (Turkic)
  • Tuvaluan (Austronesian)
  • Tuvinian (Turkic)
  • Uyghur (Turkic)
  • Uzbek (Turkic)
  • Visayan (Austronesian)
  • Yakut (Turkic)

Noun classifiers

Some languages without noun class may have noun classifiers instead. This is common in East Asian languages.

  • American Sign Language
  • Bengali (Indo-European)
  • Burmese
  • Chinese (Sino-Tibetan; modern written Chinese (but not spoken Chinese) has three to five gendered pronouns, but doesn’t have grammatical gender in the sense of noun class distinctions.)
  • Fijian (Austronesian)
  • Hawaiian (Austronesian)[4] (There is a noun class system but it is flexible and determined by how the arguments in a statement interact with each other. Therefore, it doesn't constitute a grammatical gender. For example, a house is kino ʻō (o class) because you can go into it so "your house" would be "kou hale." However, if you build the house yourself, the possessive would take the kino ʻā form "kāu hale.")
  • Indonesian (Austronesian)
  • Japanese
  • Khmer
  • Hmong
  • Korean
  • Malay (Austronesian)
  • Persian (Indo-European) -see also Tajik, Dari and Western Farsi
  • Thai
  • Vietnamese

Masculine and feminine

  • Albanian - the neuter has almost disappeared.
  • Akkadian
  • Ancient Egyptian
  • Amharic
  • Arabic
  • Aramaic
  • Breton (Brythonic)
  • Catalan - although it has the pronoun "ho" which substitutes antecedents with no gender, like a subordinate clause or a neuter demonstrative ("això", "allò"). For example: "vol això" (he wants this)→"ho vol" (he wants it), or "ha promès que vindrà" (he has promised he will come)→"ho ha promès" (he has promised it).
  • Coptic
  • Cornish (Brythonic)
  • Corsican
  • French
  • Friulan
  • Galician (with some remains of neuter in the demonstratives isto (this here), iso (this there/that here) and aquilo (that there), which can also be pronouns)
  • Hebrew
  • Hindustani (see also Urdu and Hindi)
  • Irish (Goidelic)
  • Italian - there is a trace of the neuter in some nouns and personal pronouns. E.g.: singular l'uovo, il dito; plural le uova, le dita ('the egg(s)', 'the finger(s)').
  • Kurdish (only Northern dialect; Central or Southern dialects have lost grammatical gender)
  • Ladin
  • Latvian
  • Lithuanian - there is a neuter gender for all declinable parts of speech (most adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles), except for nouns, but it has a very limited set of forms.
  • Maltese
  • Manx (Goidelic)
  • Occitan
  • Oromo language
  • Pashto - the neuter has almost disappeared.
  • Portuguese - there is a trace of the neuter in the demonstratives (isto/isso/aquilo) and some indefinite pronouns.
  • Punjabi (see also Punjabi dialects)
  • Romani
  • Sardinian
  • Scottish Gaelic (Goidelic)
  • Sicilian
  • Spanish - there is a neuter of sorts, though generally expressed only with the definite article lo, used with adjectives denoting abstract categories: lo bueno.
  • Tamazight (Berber)
  • Venetian
  • Welsh (Brythonic)
  • Zazaki

Common and neuter

In these languages, animate nouns are predominantly of common gender, while inanimate nouns may be of either gender.

  • Danish (Danish has four gendered pronouns, but only two grammatical genders in the sense of noun classes.)
  • Dutch (The masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Dutch, but a distinction is still made by some when using pronouns, and in Southern-Dutch varieties. See Gender in Dutch grammar.)
  • (West) Frisian
  • Hittite (The Hittite "common" gender contains nouns that are either masculine or feminine in other Indo-European languages, while the "neuter" gender continues the inherited Indo-European neuter gender.)
  • Norwegian (In the Bergen dialect, and in some sociolects of Oslo.)
  • Swedish (The distinction between masculine and feminine still exists for people and some animals. Some dialects retain all three genders for all nouns.) (Swedish has four gendered pronouns, but only two grammatical genders in the sense of noun classes.)

Animate and inanimate

  • Basque (the declension of the nominal phrase in the locative cases differs depending on the animacy of the referent; a different and unrelated masculine/feminine distinction is present in the verbal allocutive agreement)
  • Elamite
  • Georgian - different verbs are used in various cases (to put, to take, to have etc.), while referring to animate or inanimate objects.
  • Many Native American languages, including most languages of the Algic, Siouan[5][6] and Uto-Aztecan language families, as well as isolates such as Mapudungun
  • Sumerian
  • Chukotko-Kamchatkan

In many such languages, what is commonly termed "animacy" may in fact be more accurately described as a distinction between human and non-human, rational and irrational, "socially active" and "socially passive" etc.

Masculine, feminine, and neuter

  • Asturian
  • Belarusian
  • Bulgarian
  • Bosnian
  • Croatian
  • Czech
  • Dutch - the masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Dutch, but a distinction is still made by many when using pronouns. In South-Dutch (Flemish) spoken language all articles, possessives and demonstratives differentiate between masculine and feminine: see gender in Dutch grammar.
  • Faroese
  • Gaulish
  • German
  • Greek - in the Attic dialect of Ancient Greek, neuter plurals are treated like singulars in verbal agreement.
  • Gujarati
  • Icelandic
  • Kannada
  • Latin
  • Limburgish
  • Low German
  • Luxembourgish
  • Macedonian
  • Marathi
  • Norwegian - the three-gender system is widely used throughout the country, except in the Bergen dialect (some sociolects in Oslo lack it as well), where the dialect allows feminine nouns to be given the corresponding masculine inflections or do not use the feminine gender at all.
  • Old English
  • Old Irish
  • Old Persian
  • Old Prussian
  • Pennsylvania German
  • Polish
  • Romanian - the neuter gender (called neutru or sometimes ambigen in Romanian) has no separate forms of its own; neuter nouns behave like masculine nouns in the singular, and feminine in the plural. This behavior is seen in the form of agreeing adjectives and replacing pronouns. See Romanian nouns.
  • Russian
  • Sanskrit
  • Serbian
  • Slovak
  • Slovene
  • Sorbian
  • Swedish - as in Dutch, the masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Swedish. But many dialects, mainly in Dalecarlia, Ostrobothnia (Finland) and northern Sweden, have preserved three genders in spoken language.
  • Telugu
  • Tamil
  • Ukrainian
  • Yiddish

Note: in Slavic languages marked with an asterisk (*), traditionally only masculine, feminine and neuter genders are recognized, with animacy as a separate category for the masculine and feminine (in East Slavic languages) or masculine only (elsewhere); the actual situation is similar to Czech.

More than three grammatical genders

  • Burushaski: masculine, feminine, animals/countable nouns and inanimates/uncountable nouns/abstracts/fluids
  • Chechen: 6 classes[7] (masculine, feminine and 4 other miscellaneous classes)
  • Czech and Slovak: Masculine animate, Masculine inanimate, Feminine, Neuter (traditionally, only masculine, feminine and neuter genders are recognized, with animacy as a separate category for the masculine).
  • Polish: Masculine personal, Masculine animate, Masculine inanimate, Feminine, Neuter (traditionally, only masculine, feminine and neuter genders are recognized).
  • Pama–Nyungan languages including Dyirbal and other Australian languages have gender systems such as: Masculine, feminine (see Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things), vegetable and neuter.[8][9] (Some linguists do not regard the noun class system of this language as grammatical gender.)
    • Many Australian languages have a system of gender superclassing in which membership in one gender can mean membership in another.[10]
  • Kannada: Originally had 9 gender pronouns but only 3 exist at present. {{CN|date=February 2019}}
  • Zande: Masculine, feminine, animate, and inanimate.
  • Bantu languages have many noun classes.[11]
    • Rwanda-Rundi family of languages (including Kinyarnwanda[12], Kirundi[13], and Ha[14]): 16 noun classes grouped in 10 pairs.
    • Ganda: ten classes called simply Class I to Class X and containing all sorts of arbitrary groupings but often characterised as people, long objects, animals, miscellaneous objects, large objects and liquids, small objects, languages, pejoratives, infinitives, mass nouns
    • Shona: 20 noun classes (singular and plural are considered separate classes)
    • Swahili: 18 noun classes (singular and plural are considered separate classes)
  • Tuyuca: Tuyuca has 50–140 noun classes.[15]

References

1. ^http://babel.ucsc.edu/~hank/105/Esperanto16.pdf
2. ^http://idolinguo.org.uk/bgrammar.htm
3. ^http://mw.lojban.org/papri/Questions/en
4. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Uvh-60JooC&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=hawaiian+pronouns&source=bl&ots=YcZrsxf9RI&sig=ga2NAbup30NXrudwZlzs-nWY4RE&hl=en&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwiPupqFp_3MAhUO3WMKHRKBAdgQ6AEIaTAN#v=onepage&q=ka%20kakou&f=false|title=Hawaiian Grammar|last=Elbert|first=Samuel H.|last2=Pukui|first2=Mary Kawena|publisher=University of Hawaii Press - HONOLULU|year=1979|isbn=|location=|pages=136-144}}
5. ^https://web.archive.org/web/20070904225112/http://www.latrobe.edu.au/rclt/StaffPages/aikhenvald%2Bdownloads/ClassifiersELL2published.pdf
6. ^Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 1996. p.437
7. ^https://books.google.pl/books?id=RtyhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=chechen+noun+classes&source=bl&ots=Qg7yqMUNp7&sig=RIH3yCGfhqeBICWcaEem8sf_ttA&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBtcvB4YXUAhWM3SwKHSjuCI4Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=chechen%20noun%20classes&f=false
8. ^https://books.google.pl/books?id=0iIUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=pama-nyungan+vegetable+male+female+gender&source=bl&ots=YIXb4ZCo8s&sig=iiTWMlTw-PrJ6kSQz1tzNvHNHug&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMxbP9vobUAhWBBywKHYbGAzAQ6AEINzAF#v=onepage&q=pama-nyungan%20vegetable%20male%20female%20gender&f=false
9. ^https://scholar.harvard.edu/mpolinsky/files/Dyirbal.pdf
10. ^https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_11037/rpopt.pdf?Expires=1495704752&Signature=f5dJsIP1bJ4D3ICf4UTKiBehPDgx4Q8AUj~SIe4tL1-2n-fkAHl7fKtYDxYQ918mu0UUKM9OfGxw~DC3I-T~QRiGWHUhtl~RnJ4hH5TZNFO7RFouVpXeaBlRRd1fT0t8I7sTswoT9qjwZ3zqV3O-fGfOHUoblz4Aayl7U5IsPGK6sXpacpkketqOf~bXayFbg9C~kj~QJkm-naqsAdVeQkngzUw1~hymGbd2rNcVnGXxeq4g6S04aoF2idHVfE8JAlJ1ov6~MG83dp6BhqtRRzCxV396TyyUjc4AdHqUZrsvchvpYnjPBqNH5MKMfKD8CKGDG7Fgtf9fBgTAiBz2qg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ
11. ^https://books.google.pl/books?id=93bADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=australian+languages+genders+vegetable+miscellaneous&source=bl&ots=Q2IU4OCMD0&sig=FIsykRepTUxf8KjwR48MzowZu5E&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwju1Lm4-4jUAhWBBSwKHYW_Bz4Q6AEIUDAI#v=onepage&q=australian%20languages%20genders%20vegetable%20miscellaneous&f=false
12. ^https://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/rwlanguage.htm
13. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/42/paper2763.pdf |title=The Augment in Kirundi: When Syntax Meets Phonology |last1=Ndayiragije |first1=Juvénal |last2=Nikiema |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Bhatt |first3=Parth |date=2012 |accessdate=2019-04-03 |institution=University of Toronto |series=Selected Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics}}
14. ^https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324224169_The_Ha_Language_of_Tanzania_Grammar_Texts_and_Vocabulary
15. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15108609 |title= Difficult Languages: Tongue Twisters - In search of the world’s hardest language |work=The Economist | date=2009-12-17 |accessdate=2009-12-23}}

1 : Lists of languages
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