| 词条 | Atonement in Christianity |
| 释义 |
In Christian theology, atonement ("at-one-ment", i.e. being "at one", in harmony, with someone)[1] is the method by which human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial suffering and death.[1] Atonement is the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general, and original sin in particular, through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus,[3] enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation. Throughout the centuries, Christians have used different metaphors and given differing explanations for the death of Jesus, to express how his death worked as an atonement. Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulèn's (1879-1978) Christus Victor, the various theories or paradigma's of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm," "objective paradigm," and the "subjective paradigm":{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=11-20}}[2]
Other theories are the "embracement theory"; and the "shared atonement" theory.[5][6] Churches and denominations may vary in which metaphor or explanation they consider most accurately fits into their theological perspective; however all Christians emphasize that Jesus is the Saviour of the world and through his death the sins of humanity have been forgiven.[7]EtymologyThe English word 'atonement' originally meant "at-one-ment", i.e. being "at one", in harmony, with someone.[8] It is used to describe the saving work that God did through Christ to reconcile the world to himself, and also of the state of a person having been reconciled to God.[9][10] Metaphors and theories of atonementA number of metaphors and Old Testament terms and references have been used in the New Testament writings to understand the person[11]{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=4}}{{refn|group=note|The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and Kyrios, which were all derived from the Hebrew scriptures.[11]{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=4}}}} and death of Jesus.{{sfn|Baker|2006|p=25}}{{sfn|Finlan|2004|p=1}} Starting in the second century CE, various theories of atonement have been explicated to explain the death of Jesus and the metaphors applied by the New Testament to understand his death. Over the centuries, Christians have held different ideas about how Jesus saved people, and different views still exist within different Christian denominations. Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulèn's (1879-1978) Christus Victor, the various theories or paradigms of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm," "objective paradigm," and the "subjective paradigm":{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=11-20}}[2][12]{{refn|group=note|Karl Barth notes a range of alternative themes: forensic (we are guilty of a crime, and Christ takes the punishment), financial (we are indebted to God, and Christ pays our debt) and cultic (Christ makes a sacrifice on our behalf). For various cultural reasons, the oldest themes (honor and sacrifice) prove to have more depth than the more modern ones (payment of a debt, punishment for a crime). But in all these alternatives, the understanding of atonement has the same structure. Human beings owe something to God that we cannot pay. Christ pays it on our behalf. Thus God remains both perfectly just (insisting on a penalty) and perfectly loving (paying the penalty himself). A great many Christians would define such a substitutionary view of the atonement as simply part of what orthodox Christians believe.[13]}} Classic paradigm{{See also|Augustine of Hippo|Basil of Caesarea|Gregory of Nyssa|Gustaf Aulén|Irenaeus of Lyons|Justin Martyr|Origen|Origen of Alexandria}}Ransom theory{{Main|Ransom theory of atonement}}In the ransom metaphor Jesus liberates humanity from slavery to sin and Satan and thus death by giving his own life as a ransom sacrifice (Matthew 20:28). Victory over Satan consists of swapping the life of the perfect (Jesus), for the lives of the imperfect (humans). It was first clearly enunciated by Irenaeus (c.130–c.202 AD).[14] This theory 'continued for a thousand years to influence Christian theology, until it was finally shifted and discarded by Anselm'.[15] Gustaf Auléns reinterpreted the ransom theory in his study of Christus Victor (1931),{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=8}} arguing that Jesus was not used as a ransom, but rather defeated Satan in a spiritual battle, thus freeing enslaved humanity by defeating the captor. According to Pugh, "Ever since [Aulén's] time, we call these patristic ideas the Christus Victor way of seeing the cross."{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=1}} Recapitulation theory{{Main|Recapitulation theory of atonement}}An early theory of the atonement is the recapitulation view, first comprehensively expressed by Irenaeus.[16] In it, Christ succeeds where Adam failed,[17] undoing the wrong that Adam did and, because of his union with humanity, leads humanity on to eternal life, including moral perfection.[18] Theosis ("divinasation") is a "corollary" of the recapitulation.{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=31}} Objective paradigmSatisfaction theory{{Main|Satisfaction theory of atonement}}The "satisfaction theory of atonement," developed by the 11th-century theologian Anselm of Canterbury. In this picture humanity owes a debt not to Satan, but to the sovereign God himself. A sovereign may well be able to forgive an insult or an injury in his private capacity, but because he is a sovereign he cannot if the state has been dishonoured. Anselm argued that the insult given to God is so great that only a perfect sacrifice could satisfy, and that Jesus, being both God and man, was this perfect sacrifice. Therefore, the doctrine would be that Jesus gave himself as a “ransom for many”, to God the Father himself. Penal substitution theory{{Main|Penal substitution}}See also, for Penalty or punishment satisfaction: John Calvin, Calvinism, and imputed righteousness See also, for Vicarious repentance: John McLeod Campbell and Robert Campbell Moberly The "penal substitution theory," also called "forensic theory" and "vicarious punishment," was a development by the Reformers of Anselm's satisfaction theory.{{sfn|Taylor|1956|p=71-72}}{{sfn|Packer|1973}}{{refn|group=note|name="Penal substitution"}}{{refn|group=note|name="Baker.2006"}} Instead of considering sin as an affront to God’s honour, it sees sin as the breaking of God’s moral law. Penal substitution sees sinful man as being subject to God’s wrath, with the essence of Jesus' saving work being his substitution in the sinner's place, bearing the curse in the place of man. It is the commonly held Protestant penal substitution theory, which, instead of considering sin as an affront to God’s honour, sees sin as the breaking of God’s moral law. Placing a particular emphasis on {{Bibleref2|Romans|6:23}} (the wages of sin is death), penal substitution sees sinful man as being subject to God’s wrath with the essence of Jesus' saving work being his substitution in the sinner's place, bearing the curse in the place of man ({{Bibleref2|Galatians|3:13}}).[19] A variation that also falls within this metaphor is Hugo Grotius’ "governmental theory", which sees Jesus receiving a punishment as a public example of the lengths to which God will go to uphold the moral order. Moral government theory{{Main|Governmental theory of atonement}}{{see also|John Miley|Jonathan Edwards (the younger)|Charles Grandison Finney}}The "moral government theory" teaches that Christ suffered for humanity so that God could forgive humans without punishing them while still maintaining divine justice. It is traditionally taught in Arminian circles that draw primarily from the works of Hugo Grotius. Subjective paradigmSubjective theories emphasize God's love for humanity, and focus on changing man's attitude.{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=18}} According to Beilby and Eddy, "[a]ny New Testament text that proclaim's God's love for humanity and consequent desire to save sinners can be brought forth as evidence for this interpretation of the atonement."{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=18}} Moral influence theory of atonement{{Main|Moral influence theory of atonement}}The "moral influence theory of atonement," was developed, or most notably propagated, by Abelard (1079-1142),{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=18}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=18}}{{refn|group=note|name="dating"|Pugh notes that "the very earliest Patristic writings [...] lean towards a moralistic interpretation of the cross,{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=126}} but rejects the idea that this constiruted a full-fledged theory of moral influence of atonement. He mentions A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk (2011), Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation as a "recent attempt to prove at legth that 'moral transformation' was 'the original Christian paradigm of salvation.' This work consists of a totally one-sided presentation of biblical and historical data."{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=127}} Since the Reformation it has been advocated by modern philosophers like Immanuel Kant, and many theologians such as Hastings Rashdall and Paul Tillich. It remains the most popular view of atonement among theologically liberal Christians. It also forms the basis for René Girard’s "mimetic desire" theory (not to be confused with meme theory) of scapegoating.{{refn|group=note|See also James Alison, Gerhard Förde, Mark Heim, William Tyndale.}} Moral example theory{{Main|Faustus Socinus|Socinianism}}A related theory, the "moral example theory," was developed by Faustus Socinus (1539-1604) in his work De Jesu Christo servatore (1578). He rejected the idea of "vicarious satisfaction."{{refn|group=note|Christ suffering for, or punished for, the sinners.}} According to Socinus, Jesus' death offers us a perfect example of self-sacrifical dedication to God."{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=19}} A number of theologians see "example" (or "exemplar") theories of the atonement as variations of the moral influence theory.[20] Wayne Grudem, however, argues that "Whereas the moral influence theory says that Christ's death teaches us how much God loves us, the example theory says that Christ's death teaches us how we should live."[21] Grudem identifies the Socinians as supporters of the example theory. Other theoriesEmbracement theoryThis approach, while acknowledging the other theories, also sees the Divine voluntary self-giving as the ultimate embracement of humanity in its ultimate act of sin, viz, deicide, or the murder of God, thus canceling sin on the cross.[22]{{refn|group=note|Domenic Marbaniang: "The depth of estrangement and contortion was manifest in the kind of death administered: the death of the cross. Yet, the real story is not that the world rejected Him; the real story is that He was willing to let the world reject Him. Divine self-emptying, divine servanthood, and divine crucifixion are powerful themes that shock the philosophy of religion. Nietzsche called the greatest of all sins to be the murder of God (deicide). There was nothing more sinful than that. On the reverse, the greatest of all righteousness fulfilled was in the self-giving of the Son of God. This self-giving brought an end to the history of hostility between man and God. It cancelled all debts. Man had committed the greatest of all crimes, and God had allowed it to be done to Him in the ultimate divine sacrifice. The Cross was where Justice and Love met vis-à-vis. It was where man affirmed his estrangement and God affirmed His belongedness. It was where God accepted man as he was. The one act of righteousness by the Son of God nullified forever the writ of accusation against all humanity."[22]}} Shared atonement theoryIn the "shared atonement" theory the atonement is spoken of as shared by all. To wit, God sustains the Universe. Therefore if Jesus was God in human form, when he died, we all died with him, and when he rose from the dead, we all rose with him.[5][23] Compatibility of differing theoriesSome theologians say that "various biblical understandings of the atonement need not conflict".[24] Reformed theologian J. I. Packer, for example, although he maintains that "penal substitution is the mainstream, historic view of the church and the essential meaning of the Atonement... Yet with penal substitution at the center", he also maintains that "Christus Victor and other Scriptural views of atonement can work together to present a fully orbed picture of Christ's work".[24] J. Kenneth Grider, speaking from a governmental theory perspective, says that the governmental theory can incorporate within itself "numerous understandings promoted in the other major Atonement theories", including ransom theory, elements of the "Abelardian 'moral influence' theory", vicarious aspects of the atonement, etc.[25] Anglican theologian Oliver Chase Quick described differing theories as being of value, but also denied that any particular theory was fully true, saying, 'if we start from the fundamental and cardinal thought of God's act of love in Jesus Christ ... I think we can reach a reconciling point of view, from which each type of theory is seen to make its essential contribution to the truth, although no one theory, no any number of theories, can be sufficient to express its fullness.'[26]Others say that some models of the atonement naturally exclude each other. James F. McGrath, for example, talking about the atonement, says that 'Paul ... prefers to use the language of participation. One died for all, so that all died (2 Corinthians 5:14). This is not only different from substitution, it is the opposite of it.'[27] Similarly, Mark M. Mattison, in his article The Meaning of the Atonement says, 'Substitution implies an "either/or"; participation implies a "both/and."[28] J. Kenneth Grider, quoted above showing the compatibility of various atonement models with the governmental theory, nevertheless also says that both penal substitution and satisfaction atonement theories are incompatible with the governmental theory.[29] Confusion of termsSome confusion can occur when discussing the atonement because the terms used sometimes have differing meanings depending on the contexts in which they are used.[30] For example:
Denominational perspectivesEastern ChristianityAccording to Eastern Christian theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus recapitulation theory, Jesus' death is a ransom. This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of theosis c.q. divinization, becoming the kind of humans God wants us to be. In Eastern Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism salvation is seen as participation in the renewal of human nature itself by way of the eternal Word of God assuming the human nature in its fullness. In contrast to Western branches of theology, Orthodox Christians tend to use the word "expiation" with regard to what is accomplished in the sacrificial act. In Orthodox theology, expiation is an act of offering that seeks to change the one making the offering. The Biblical Greek word which is translated both as "propitiation" and as "expiation" is hilasmos, which means "to make acceptable and enable one to draw close to God". Thus the Orthodox emphasis would be that Christ died, not to appease an angry and vindictive Father or to avert the wrath of God upon sinners, but to defeat and secure the destruction of sin and death, so that those who are fallen and in spiritual bondage may become divinely transfigured, and therefore fully human, as their Creator intended; that is to say, human creatures become God in his energies or operations but not in his essence or identity, conforming to the image of Christ and reacquiring the divine likeness (see theosis).[40] Roman CatholicIn Roman Catholicism, atonement is not seen as participation in the renewal of human nature, but as the acceptance of a legal exchange. Early speculation regarding the nature of the atonement was couched in terminology drawn from custom and law. William Kent notes that the Atonement "...is represented as the payment of a price, or a ransom, or as the offering of satisfaction for a debt. But we can never rest in these material figures as though they were literal and adequate. As both Abelard and Bernard remind us, the Atonement is ...a sacrifice,... It was by this inward sacrifice of obedience unto death, ...that Christ paid the debt to justice."[41] As expressed by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor, in the Roman Catholic tradition the concepts of atonement and redemption are often seen as being inherently related. And atonement is often balanced with specific Acts of Reparation which relate the sufferings and death of Christ to the forgiveness of sins.[42] Moreover, in Miserentissimus Redemptor the Pontiff called acts of reparation a duty for Roman Catholics: "We are holden to the duty of reparation and expiation by a certain more valid title of justice and of love." ... "Moreover this duty of expiation is laid upon the whole race of men"[43] Pope John Paul II referred to the concept as: "the unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified".[44] MethodismMethodism falls squarely in the tradition of substitutionary atonement, though it is linked with Christus Victor and moral influence theories.[45] John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist movement, reflecting on {{Bibleverse|Colossians|1:14|KJV}}, connects penal substitution with victory over Satan in his Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament: "the voluntary passion of our Lord appeased the Father's wrath, obtained pardon and acceptance for us, and consequently, dissolved the dominion and power which Satan had over us through our sins."[45] In elucidating {{Bibleverse|1 John|3:8|KJV}}, Wesley says that Christ manifesting Himself in the hearts of humans destroys the work of Satan, thus making Christus Victor imagery "one part of the framework of substitutionary atonement."[45] The Church of England priest and follower of Methodism Charles Wesley's hymns "Sinners, Turn, Why Will You Die" and "And Can It be That I Should Gain" concurrently demonstrate that Christ's sacrifice is the example of supreme love, while also convicting the Christian believer of his/her sins, thus using the moral influence theory within the structure of penal substitution in accordance with the Augustinian theology of illumination.[45] Methodism also emphasizes a participatory nature in atonement, in which the Methodist believer spiritually dies with Christ as He dies for humanity.[45]{{refn|group=note|This is reflected in the words of the following Methodist hymn (122):[45]"Vouchsafe us eyes of faith to see The Man transfixed on Calvary, To know thee, who thou art— The one eternal God and true; And let the sight affect, subdue, And break my stubborn heart... The unbelieving veil remove, And by thy manifested love, And by thy sprinkled blood, Destroy the love of sin in me, And get thyself the victory, And bring me back to God... Now let thy dying love constrain My soul to love its God again, Its God to glorify; And lo! I come thy cross to share, Echo thy sacrificial prayer, And with my Saviour die."[45] The Christian believer, in Methodist theology, mystically draws himself/herself into the scene of the crucifixion in order to experience the power of salvation that it possesses.[45] In the Eucharist, the Methodist especially experiences the participatory nature of substitutionary atonement as "the sacrament sets before our eyes Christ's death and suffering whereby we are transported into an experience of the crucifixion."[45] OtherThe New Church (Swedenborgian)According to the doctrine of The New Church, as explained by Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), there is no such thing as substitutionary atonement as is generally understood. Swedenborg's account of atonement has much in common with the Christus Victor doctrine, which refers to a Christian understanding of the Atonement which views Christ's death as the means by which the powers of evil, which held humanity under their dominion, were defeated.[3] It is a model of the atonement that is dated to the Church Fathers,[46] and it, along with the related ransom theory, was the dominant theory of the atonement for a thousand years. Jehovah's WitnessesAccording to Jehovah's witnesses, atonement for sins comes only through the life, ministry, and death of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus was the "second Adam", being the pre-existent and sinless Son of God who became the human Messiah of Israel, and that he came to undo Adamic sin.[47][48][49][50][51][52] Witnesses believe that the sentence of death given to Adam and subsequently his offspring by God required an equal substitute or ransom sacrifice of a perfect man. They believe that salvation is possible only through Jesus' ransom sacrifice,[53] and that individuals cannot be reconciled to God until they repent of their sins, and then call on the name of God through Jesus.[54] Salvation is described as a free gift from God, but is said to be unattainable without obedience to Christ and good works that are prompted by faith. According to their teaching, the works prove faith is genuine.[55][56] "Preaching the good news" is said to be one of the works necessary for salvation, both of themselves and those to whom they preach.[57] They believe that people in the "last days" can be "saved" by identifying Jehovah's Witnesses as God's theocratic organization, and by serving God as a part of it.[58] Latter Day Saint Movement (Mormons){{See also|Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)}}The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints expands the doctrine of the atonement complementary to the substitutionary atonement concept, including the following:
"The word [atonement] describes the setting 'at one' of those who have been estranged, and denotes the reconciliation of man to God. Sin is the cause of the estrangement, and therefore the purpose of the atonement is to correct or overcome the consequences of sin" ("Atonement" entry of the Bible Dictionary in the LDS edition of the King James Bible). The United Pentecostal ChurchOneness Pentecostals teach that the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus Christ are the only means by which atonement can be obtained for dying humanity, and which makes the free gift of God's salvation possible. They believe that all must put faith in the propitiatory work of Christ to gain everlasting life. According to United Pentecostal theology, this saving faith is more than just mental assent or intellectual acceptance, or even verbal profession, but must include trust, appropriation, application, action, and obedience. They contend that water baptism is one of the works of faith and obedience necessary for Christ's sacrificial atonement to be efficacious.[59]See also{{Portal|Christianity}}
Notes1. ^"Atonement." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 2. ^1 Gustaf Aulen, Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement, E.T. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan,1931 3. ^1 Leon Morris, 'Theories of the Atonement' in Elwell Evangelical Dictionary. 4. ^{{citation|last=Tuomala|first=Jeffrey|year=1993|title=Christ's Atonement as the Model for Civil Justice|journal=American Journal of Jurisprudence|publisher=University of Notre Dame|volume=38|pages=221–255}} 5. ^1 Jeremiah, David. 2009. Living With Confidence in a Chaotic World, pp. 96 & 124. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, Inc. 6. ^Massengale, Jamey. 2013.Renegade Gospel, The Jesus Manifold. Amazon, Kindle 7. ^Ward, K. (2007) Christianity – a guide for the perplexed. SPCK, London, p. 48- 51 8. ^1 Niels-erik A. Andreasen, 'Atonement/Expiation in the Old Testament' in W. E. Mills (ed.), Mercer dictionary of the Bible (Mercer University Press, 1990) 9. ^1 Collins English Dictionary, Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition, atonement, retrieved October 03, 2012: "2. (often capital) Christian theol a. the reconciliation of man with God through the life, sufferings, and sacrificial death of Christ b. the sufferings and death of Christ" 10. ^Matthew George Easton, 'Atonement' in Illustrated Bible Dictionary (T. Nelson & Sons, 1897). 11. ^1 Matt Stefon, Hans J. Hillerbrand, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christology Christology], Encyclopedia Britannica 12. ^Vincent Taylor, The Cross of Christ (London: Macmillan & Co, 1956), p. 71-2 13. ^Placher, William C. "How does Jesus save? Christian Century, 00095281, 6/2/2009, Vol. 126, Issue 11 14. ^{{cite book|first=Henry |last=Oxenham|title=The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GlYsAAAAYAAJ|year=1865|publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green|pages=xliv,114}} 15. ^H. N. Oxenham, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GlYsAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false The Catholic doctrine of the atonement] (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865), p. 114 16. ^H. N. Oxenham, ‘‘The Catholic doctrine of the atonement’’ (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865), p. 114-118 17. ^E.g., James Bethune-Baker, [https://archive.org/stream/anintroductionto00bethuoft An introduction to the early history of Christian doctrine to the time of the Council of Chalcedon] (London: Methuen & Co, 1903), p. 334: 'Just as mankind in Adam lost its birthright, so in Christ mankind recovers its original condition'. 18. ^Robert S. Franks, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofdoctrin01franuoft A history of the doctrine of the work of Christ in its ecclesiastical development] vol. 1 (London: Hodder and Stoughton), p. 37-38 19. ^See for example, John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 3.15.5-8 20. ^{{cite book|last1=Coppedge|first1=Allan|title=Portraits of God: A Biblical Theology of Holiness|page=345|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOo8w3GzQmAC&pg=PA345|accessdate=15 August 2016}} 21. ^{{cite book|last1=Grudem|first1=Wayne|author-link=Wayne Grudem|title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine|page=539|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=he-Ax9CoYpIC&pg=PT539|accessdate=15 August 2016}} 22. ^1 Domenic Marbaniang, "Cross and Atonement: A Theological Perspective", Revive, Vol.11, No.5, May 2018. Kumbanad. p.12 23. ^Massengale, Jamey. 2013.Renegade Gospel, The Jesus Manifold. Amazon, Kindle. 24. ^1 Trammel, Madison, 'Cross Purposes' in Christianity Today, 2 Jul 2007. (accessed 20/12/10) 25. ^J. Kenneth Grider, The Governmental Theory. 26. ^Oliver Chase Quick, Doctrines of the Creed, London: Nisbet; New York: Scribners, 1938, p.222. 27. ^James F. McGrath, 'What's Wrong With Penal Substitution?' on Exploring Our Matrix Friday, December 14, 2007 (accessed 30/12/10) 28. ^Mark M. Mattison, The Meaning of the Atonement (accessed 30/12/10). See section entitled Substitution or Participation? 29. ^J. Kenneth Grider, The Governmental Theory: 'At the same time, [the governmental theory] is not so eclectic that it has any affinity for the main elements of two of the major Atonement theories: the payment of a debt in the `satisfaction' theory; and Christ's being punished, as in the `punishment' theory'; '...the governmental theory cannot incorporate into itself the understanding that Christ paid the penalty for us, or that He paid a debt for us...'. 30. ^1 J. K. Mozley, [https://archive.org/stream/doctrineatoneme00mozlgoog#page/n106/mode/2up The doctrine of the atonement] (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916), p. 94-5: 'The same or similar words may point to the same or similar ideas; but not necessarily so, since a word which has been at one time the expression of one idea, may, to a less or greater extent, alter its meaning under the influence of another idea. Hence it follows that the preservation of a word does not, as a matter of course, involve the preservation of the idea which the word was originally intended to convey. In such respects no doctrine demands more careful treatment than that of the Atonement.' 31. ^Mark Dever and Michael Lawrence, It Is Well: Expositions on Substitutionary Atonement (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2010), p. 15: 'What we hope to do in the fourteen expositional messages in this book is simply to show that the doctrine of penal substitution is clearly taught in the Bible' -- compare with title of book: Expositions on Substitutionary Atonement. 32. ^Mark David Baker (ed), [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXont-aAtfoC&lpg=PT18&dq=%22substitutionary%20atonement%22&pg=PT18#v=onepage&q=%22substitutionary%20atonement%22&f=false Proclaiming the scandal of the cross] (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006): '...many assume that "substitutionary atonement" is merely a shorthand way to refer to "penal substitutionary atonement." [...] Substitution is a broad term that one can use with reference to a variety of metaphors.' 33. ^Derek Flood, Penal Substitution vs. Christus Victor (accessed 31/12/10): 'This hurtful image of God is largely based on a way of understanding the cross that is known as "Vicarious Atonement", "Penal Substitution", or "Satisfaction-Doctrine".' 34. ^John Launchbury, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KeYvQAAACAAJ&dq=change+us+not+god+launchbury&hl=en&ei=tDIdTfaUM4OqhAezrpG3Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA Change us, not God] (WCF Publishing, 2009), p. 7: '...Anselm...introduced the Satisfaction Theory' 35. ^D. Flood, 'Substitutionary atonement and the Church Fathers' in Evangelical Quarterly 82.2 (2010), p. 141,143,153 36. ^Vincent Taylor, The Cross of Christ (London: Macmillan & Co, 1956), p. 31. Compare J. I. Packer: 'It would ... clarify discussion if all who hold that Jesus by dying did something for us which we needed to do but could not, would agree that they are regarding Christ’s death as substitutionary, and differing only on the nature of the action which Jesus performed in our place and also, perhaps, on the way we enter into the benefit that flows from it.' ('What did the Cross Achieve? The Logic of Penal Substitution' [1973]) 37. ^D. W. Snyder Belousek, Atonement, Justice, and Peace (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012), p. 96 n. 2: 'James states that "historic orthodox Christianity" rests upon the doctrine of "vicarious atonement." As such, we agree -- that Christ died "for us" is the ancient apostolic faith reflected in the orthodox creeds. But as to the vicarious character of this "for us," James narrows the idea of vicarious atonement to penal substitution...'. 38. ^Theology and Narrative (Oxford: OUP, 1993), p. 248: 'Nor does Frei ever explain what he means by the word "vicarious," which is especially puzzling in light of his apparent rejection of the notion (or at least one notion) of "penal substitution," with which the term "vicarious" is often synonymous...' 39. ^Cf. D. Flood, 'Substitutionary Atonement and the Church Fathers' in Evangelical Quarterly 82.2 (2010), p. 144: 'It is not enough to simply identify substitutionary or even penal themes in the writings of the church fathers, and assume that this is an endorsement of the Reformed understanding of penal substitution. Instead, one must look at how a patristic author is using these concepts within their own understanding of the atonement and ask: what salvic purpose does Christ bearing our suffering, sin, and death have for this author? Rather than simply ‘proof-texting’ we need to seek to understand how these statements fit into the larger thought-world of an author. In short, it is a matter of context. The main task of this essay, therefore, is to explore the context in which the church fathers understood substitutionary atonement.' 40. ^Fr. James Bernstein, author of Surprised by Christ: My journey from Judaism to Orthodox Christianity, The Illumined Heart Podcast, May 22, 2008. See also Clark Carlton. The Faith: Understanding Orthodox Christianity - An Orthodox Catechism (Salisbury, MA) Regina Orthodox Press, 1997. 139-146. 41. ^Kent, William. "Doctrine of the Atonement." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 30 August 2016 42. ^Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices {{ISBN|0-87973-910-X}} 43. ^Pius XI, Miserentissimus Redemptor (08/05/1928) 44. ^Vatican archives {{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-05-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502234831/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |archivedate=2008-05-02 |df= }} 45. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 {{cite journal|last=Wood|first=Darren Cushman|year=2007|title=John Wesley's Use of Atonement|journal=The Asbury Journal|volume=62|issue=2|pages=55–70|language=English}} 46. ^H. N. Oxenham, ‘‘The Catholic doctrine of the atonement’’ (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865) 47. ^{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|year=1993|publisher=Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society|pages=144–145}} 48. ^{{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|year=2005|page=32|publisher=Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society}} 49. ^"The Watchtower 1973, page 724" – "Declaration and resolution", The Watchtower, December 1, 1973, page 724. 50. ^{{Cite book| last = Penton | first = M. James | title = Apocalypse Delayed | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 1997 | edition=2nd. | origyear=1985 | pages = 26–29 | isbn = 0802079733}} 51. ^{{cite journal|journal=The Watchtower|date=January 15, 2006|pages=7|title=Angels—How They Affect Us}} 52. ^ADAM – jw.org. Retrieved 10 January 2013. 53. ^The Watchtower 6/1/00 p. 11 par. 6 Keep Your “Hope of Salvation” Bright! 54. ^The Watchtower, March 15, 1989, p. 31 Call on Jehovah’s Name and Get Away Safe! “The Way of Salvation” 55. ^"James Urges Clean and Active Worship", The Watchtower 3/1/83 p. 13, "Faith that does not prompt us to do good works is not genuine and will not result in our salvation." 56. ^"Meetings to Help Us Make Disciples", Our Kingdom Ministry, January 1979, p. 2. 57. ^The Watchtower, May 15, 2006 pp. 28-29 par. 12 58. ^The Watchtower 2/15/83 p. 12 You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth—But How? 59. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612115253/http://upci.org/about-us/beliefs/21-about-us/beliefs/91 Our Doctrinal Foundation] - United Pentecostal Church International. Retrieved 16 October 2013. References{{Reflist|2}}{{reflist|group=web}}Sources{{refbegin}}
Further reading
External links{{Wiktionary|atonement}}
4 : Atonement in Christianity|Christian hamartiology|Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices|Christian terminology |
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