词条 | Short chronology | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
释义 |
The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC. The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research.[1][2] The middle chronology (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology). After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain.[3] While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward. Early Bronze AgeEstimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible. Kings of Ebla{{Main|Ebla}}The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. [4]
Sumer{{Further|Sumerian king list}}
Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire.[5]
Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti.[6][7][8]
First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk. Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list.[9]
Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma.[10] Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. [11]
Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. [12]
In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur.[13] [14][15]
Middle Bronze AgeThe Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries)
After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I.[17][18]
The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II.[19] [20][21]
Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents.[22][23]
When the names of Sealand Dynasty kings were found on cuneiform records like the Babylonian Kings Lists, Chronicle 20, Chronicle of the Early Kings, and the Synchronistic King List, it was assumed that the dynasty slotted in between the First Dynasty of Babylon and the Kassites.[24] Later discoveries changed this to the assumption that the dynasty ran entirely in parallel to the others. Modern scholarship has made it clear that the Sealand Dynasty did in fact control Babylon and the remnants of its empire for a time after its sack by the Hittites in 1531 BC.[25][26]
The absolute chronology of the Hittite Old Kingdom hinges entirely on the date of the sack of Babylon. In 1531 BC, for reasons that are still extremely unclear, Mursili I marched roughly 500 miles from Aleppo to Babylon, sacked it, and then promptly returned home, never to return. Other than that event, all the available chronological synchronisms are local to the region in and near Anatolia.
Late Bronze Age{{Further|Bronze Age collapse}}The Middle Assyrian period (14th to 12th centuries)
The Kassites first appeared during the reign of Samsu-iluna of the First Babylonian Dynasty and after being defeated by Babylon, moved to control the city-state of Mari. Some undetermined amount of time after the fall of Babylon, the Kassites established a new Babylonian dynasty. The Babylonian king list identifies 36 kings reigning 576 years, however, only about 18 names are legible. A few more were identified by inscriptions. There is some confusion in the middle part of the dynasty because of conflicts between the Synchronistic Chronicle and Chronicle P. The later kings are well attested from kudurru steles. Relative dating is from sychronisms with Egypt, Assyria and the Hittites. The dynasty ends with the defeat of Enlil-nadin-ahi by Elam.[27][28][29][30]
Perhaps because the capital of Mitanni, Washukanni, has not yet been found, there are no available king lists, year lists, or royal inscriptions. Fortunately, a fair amount of diplomatic, Hittite, and Assyrian sources exist to firm up the chronology. Having become powerful under Shaushtatar, Mitanni eventually falls into the traditional trap of dynasties, the contest for succession. Tushratta and Artatama II both claim the kingship and the Hittites and Assyrians take advantage of the situation. After that, Mitanni was no longer a factor in the region.[31][32]
Long a minor player, after the defeat of its neighbor Mitanni by the Hittites, Assyria rises to the ranks of a major power under Ashur-uballit I. The period is marked by conflict with rivals Babylon and the Hittites as well as diplomatic exchanges with Egypt, in the Amarna letters. Note that after the excavation, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of various Neo-Assyrian documents, such as the Assyrian king list, scholars assumed that the chronological data for earlier Assyrian periods could be taken as accurate history. That view has changed over the years and the early Assyrian chronology is being re-assessed. Since there is yet no consensus, the traditional order and regnal lengths will be followed.[33][34][35]
Beginning under his father, Suppiluliuma I brought the Hittites from obscurity into an empire that lasts for almost 150 years. The Hittite New Kingdom reaches its height after the defeat of Mitanni, an event which ironically leads to the rise of Assyria. The dynasty ends with the destruction of Hattusa by parties undetermined but which may have included the Sea People and the Kaskians.[36][37][38][39]
A client state of Mitanni and later the Hittites, Ugarit was nonetheless a significant player in the region. While regnal lengths and an absolute chronology for Ugarit are not yet available, the known order of kings and some firm synchronisms make it reasonably placeable in time. The fall of Ugarit has been narrowed down to the range from the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah to the 8th year of Pharaoh Rameses III of Egypt. This is roughly the same time that Hattusa is destroyed.[40][41]
Iron Age{{Further|Neo-Hittite}}The Early Iron Age (12th to 7th centuries BC). While not subject to the long versus short dating issue, chronology in the Ancient Near East is not on a firm footing until the rise of the Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian rulers in their respective regions. The dates, regnal lengths, and even the names of a number of rulers from that interim period are still unknown. To make matters worse, the few surviving records, such as the Synchronistic Chronicle, give conflicting data.[42]
After the fall of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon to Elam, power in the region, and control of Babylon, swung to the city-state of Isin. Assyria at this time was extremely weak, except during the reign of the powerful Assyrian ruler Tiglath-Pileser I. Other polities in the area had yet to recover from the Bronze Age collapse.[43][44]
After the Middle Assyrian Kingdom there is an uncertain period in Assyrian history. The current cornerstone of chronology for this time is the Assyrian King List which, unfortunately, conflicts with other records such as the Synchronised King List and the Babylonian King List. In any event, the rulers of Assyria in this time were all fairly weak, except for Tiglath-Pileser I. Note too that this chronology is based on assumed synchronisms with Egypt in the previous period.
Dynasties V to IX of Babylon (post-Kassite):
The Assyrian empire rises to become the dominant power in the ancient Near East for over two centuries. This occurs despite the efforts of various other strong groups that existed in this period, including Babylon, Urartu, Damascus, Elam, and Egypt.[45][46][47]
Dynasties X of Babylon (Assyrian): Babylon was under the direct control of Neo-Assyrian rulers or their appointed governors for much of this period.
For times after Assurbanipal (died 627 BC), see:
The Hellenistic period begins with the conquests of Alexander the Great in 330 BC. See also{{Portal|Ancient Near East}}
Notes1. ^Manning, S. W.; Kromer, B.; Kuniholm, P. I.; and Newton, M. W. 2001 Anatolian tree-rings and a new chronology for the east Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages. Science 294: 2532-35. 2. ^Sturt W. Manning et al., Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology, PlosONE July 13 2016 3. ^[https://www.academia.edu/1619055/Problems_of_Chronology_Mesopotamia_Anatolia_and_the_Syro-Levantine_Region], Schwartz, Glenn, 2008. "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region." In Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., edited by Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans: 450-452. 4. ^A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla, Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 55, 2003, pp. 1-44 5. ^Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions: Presargonic Inscriptions, Jerold S. Cooper, Eisenbrauns, 1986, {{ISBN|0-940490-82-X}} 6. ^The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization, H. Weiss et al., Science, Aug 20, pp. 995-1004, 1993 7. ^Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts, Rosetta 1, pp 1-9, 2006 8. ^The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334-2113), Douglas R. Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1993, {{ISBN|0-8020-0593-4}} 9. ^Reallexikon der Assyriologie by Erich Ebling, Bruno Meissner, 1993, Walter de Gruyter, {{ISBN|3-11-003705-X}} 10. ^Gudea and His Dynasty, Dietz Otto Edzard, 1997, University of Toronto Press {{ISBN|0-8020-4187-6}} 11. ^The Calendar of Neo-Sumerian Ur and Its Political Significance, Magnus Widell, University of Chicago, 2004 12. ^A Sumerian reading-book, C.J Gadd, The Clarendon Press, 1924 13. ^The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330 B.C. By Amélie Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995, {{ISBN|0-415-16762-0}} 14. ^Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-8020-4198-1}} 15. ^The ruling family of Ur III Umma. A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512183750/http://cdli.ucla.edu/staff/dahl/dissertation.pdf |date=2006-05-12 }}, J.L. Dahl, UCLA dissertation, 2003 16. ^"Ancient Eclipses and Dating the Fall of Babylon"{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Boris Banjevic, Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade No. 80 (2006), 251 – 257 17. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20080311152602/http://cdliwiki.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/doku.php/rulers_of_mesopotamia#first_dynasty_of_isin Kings of Isin Year Names] 18. ^The Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595), Douglas R. Frayne, University Of Toronto Press, 1990, {{ISBN|0-8020-5873-6}} 19. ^The Rulers of Larsa {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306091227/http://cuneiform.ucla.edu/staff/fitz/dissertation.pdf |date=2009-03-06 }}, M. Fitzgerald, Yale University Dissertation, 2002 20. ^Larsa Year Names, Marcel Segrist, Andrews University Press, 1990, {{ISBN|0-943872-54-5}} 21. ^Chronology of the Larsa Dynasty, E.M. Grice, C.E. Keiser, M. Jastrow, AMS Press, 1979, {{ISBN|0-404-60274-6}} 22. ^Chronicle of early kings at Livius.org 23. ^The Proclamation of Telipinu {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816012134/http://www.hittites.info/translations.aspx?text=translations%2Fhistorical%2FTelipinuProclamation.html |date=2012-08-16 }} 24. ^Albert Kirk Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles, Eisenbrauns, 2000 {{ISBN|1-57506-049-3}} 25. ^W. G. Lambert, The Home of the First Sealand Dynasty, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 208-210, 1974 26. ^Stephanie Dalley, Babylonian Tablets from The First Sealand Dynasty in the Schoyen Collection, CDL Press, 2009 {{ISBN|1-934309-08-7}} 27. ^The Collapse of a Complex State, A Reappraisal of the End of the First Dynasty of Babylon 1683–1597 B.C., Seth Richardson, dissertation, Columbia University, 2002 28. ^{{cite book |title=Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I (MSKH I) |author=J. A. Brinkman |publisher=Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |year=1976}} 29. ^The Kassites of Ancient Mesopotamian: Origins, Politics, and Culture, Walter Sommerfield, vol 2 of J. M. Sasson ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995 30. ^"The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Albrecht Goetze, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1964, pp. 97–101. 31. ^Pharaoh and his Brothers, S Jakob 32. ^Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East, Trevor Bryce, Routledge, 2003, {{ISBN|0-415-25857-X}} 33. ^"Comments on the Nassouhi Kinglist and the Assyrian Kinglist Tradition," J.A. Brinkman, Orientalia N.S 42, 1973 34. ^Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC, A.K. Grayson, University of Toronto Press, 1987, {{ISBN|0-8020-2605-2}} 35. ^"The Chronology of Ancient Assyria Re-assessed," B. Newgrosh, JACF, vol. 08, pp. 78–106, 1999 36. ^Bryce, T., 'The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective', BMSAES 6 (2006), 1–11 37. ^Sürenhagen, D., [https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/6e%20Forerunners.pdf 'Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty'], BMSAES 6 (2006), 59–67 38. ^Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Eisenbrauns, 2003, {{ISBN|1-57506-079-5}} 39. ^Hittite Diplomatic Texts, G Brinkman, Scholars Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-7885-0551-3}} 40. ^Handbook of Ugaritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, Brill, 1999, {{ISBN|90-04-10988-9}} 41. ^The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, Marguerite Yon, Eisenbrauns, 2006, {{ISBN|1-57506-029-9}} 42. ^John Anthony Brinkman, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 B.C., Biblical Institute Press, 1968, {{ISBN|88-7653-243-9}} 43. ^A Poebel, "The Second Dynasty of Isin According to a New King-List Tablet," Assyriological Studies 15, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1955 44. ^J. A. Brinkman, "Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 624 B. C.: The Documentary Evidence," American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 271–281, 1972 45. ^"Landscape and Settlement in the Neo-Assyrian Empire," T. J. Wilkinson, E. B. Wilkinson, J. Ur, M. Altaweel, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Nov 2005 46. ^Neo-Assyrian Eponym List Livius.org 47. ^Empires and Exploitation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827192547/http://sshi.stanford.edu/Conferences/2000-2001/empires2/bedford.pdf |date=2008-08-27 }}, P Bedford, WA Perth, 2001 References
External links
5 : Chronology|2nd millennium BC|Ancient Near East|Assyriology|Alternative chronologies |
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