“Sicilian language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Sicilian is currently spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of Sicily and by emigrant populations around the world.{{sfn|Cipolla|2004|pages=140–141}} The latter are found in the countries which attracted large numbers of Sicilian immigrants during the course of the past century or so, especially the United States, Canada (especially in Montreal, Toronto and Hamilton), Australia and Argentina. In the past four or five decades, large numbers of Sicilians were also attracted to the industrial zones of northern Italy and areas of the European Union, especially Germany.^[12]

It is not used as an official language anywhere, not even within Sicily, where currently the government does not regulate the language in any way. However, in recent years the non-profit organisation Cademia Siciliana has created an orthographic proposal to help normalise the written form of the language.^[13]^[14]^[15] Furthermore, since its inception in 1951, the Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani (CSFLS) in Palermo has been researching and publishing descriptive information on the Sicilian language.^[16]

The autonomous regional parliament of Sicily has legislated Regional Law No. 9/2011 to encourage the teaching of Sicilian at all schools, but inroads into the education system have been slow.{{sfn|Cipolla|2004|pages=163–165}}^[17] The CSFLS has created a textbook "Dialektos" to comply with the law, however it does not provide an orthography to write the language.^[18] Although within Sicily it is only taught as part of dialectology courses, outside of Italy Sicilian language has been taught at the University of Pennsylvania and Manouba University. Also since 2009 it has been taught at the Italian Charities of America in New York City,^[19]^[20]

and it is also preserved and taught through family association, church organizations and societies, as well as social and ethnic historical clubs, and even in Internet social groups.^[21]^[22]^[23] On the 15th of May, 2018 the Sicilian region once again mandated the teaching of Sicilian in schools and referred to the language as a language (and not a dialect) in official communication.^[10]

The language is officially recognized in the municipal statutes of some Sicilian towns, such as Caltagirone^[24] and Grammichele,^[25] in which the "inalienable historical and cultural value of the Sicilian language" is proclaimed. Further, the Sicilian language would be protected and promoted under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML), however, Italy has signed this treaty, but the Italian Parliament has not ratified it.^[26] It is not included in Italian Law No. 482/1999, although some other minority languages of Sicily are.^[27]

Ethnologue report on Sicilian

Other names

Alternative names of Sicilian are {{lang|en|Calabro-Sicilian|italic=yes}}, {{lang|scn|sicilianu}}, and {{lang|scn|sìculu}}.^[1] The first term refers to the fact that a form of Sicilian is spoken in southern Calabria, in particular, in the province of Reggio Calabria.^[1] The other two are names for the language in Sicily itself: specifically, the term {{lang|scn|sìculu}} originally describes one of the larger prehistoric groups living in Sicily (the Sicels or {{lang|la|Siculi}}) before the arrival of Greeks in the 8th century BC (see below). It can also be used as a prefix to qualify, or further elaborate on, the origins of a person, for example: Siculo-American ({{lang|scn|sìculu-miricanu}}) or Siculo-Australian.

Dialects

As a language, Sicilian has its own dialects, in the following main groupings:^[1]{{sfn|Bonner|2001|pages=2–3}}

History

Early influences

Because Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and many peoples have passed through it (Phoenicians, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantine Greeks, Moors, Normans, Swabians, Spaniards, Austrians, Italians), Sicilian displays such rich and varied influence from several languages on its lexical stock and grammar. These languages include Greek, Latin, Arabic, Norman, Lombard, Occitan, Germanic languages, Catalan, French and Spanish, and the influence from the island's pre-Indo-European inhabitants. The very earliest influences, visible in Sicilian to this day, exhibit both prehistoric Mediterranean elements and prehistoric Indo-European elements, and occasionally a blending of both.{{sfn|Ruffino|2001|pages=7–8}}{{sfn|Giarrizzo|1989|pages=1–4}}

Before the Roman conquest (3rd century BC), Sicily was occupied by various populations. The earliest of these populations were the Sicanians, considered to be autochthonous. The Sicels and the Elymians arrived between the second and first millennia BC. These aboriginal populations in turn were followed by the Phoenicians (between the 10th and 8th centuries BC) and the Greeks.^[31] The Greek-language influence remains strongly visible, while the influences from the other groups are less obvious.^[31] What can be stated with certainty is that in Sicilian remain pre-Indo-European words of an ancient Mediterranean origin, but one cannot be more precise than that: in fact, of the three main prehistoric groups, only the Sicels were known to be Indo-European with a degree of certainty, and their speech is likely to have been closely related to that of the Romans.^[31]

Stratification

The following table, listing words for "twins", illustrates the difficulty linguists face in tackling the various sub-strata of the Sicilian language.{{sfn|Ruffino|2001|page=8}}

A similar qualifier can be applied to many of the words that appear in this article. Sometimes we may know that a particular word has a prehistoric derivation, but we do not know whether the Sicilians have inherited it directly from the indigenous populations, or whether it has come to them via another route. Similarly, we might know that a particular word has a Greek origin but we do not know from which Greek period the Sicilians first used it (pre-Roman occupation or during its Byzantine period), or once again, whether the particular word may even have come to Sicily via another route. For instance, by the time the Romans had occupied Sicily, the Latin language had made its own borrowings from Greek.{{sfn|Ruffino|2001|pages=11–12}}

Pre-classical period

The words with a prehistoric Mediterranean derivation often refer to plants native to the Mediterranean region or to other natural features.^[31] Bearing in mind the qualifiers mentioned above (alternative sources are provided where known), examples of such words include:

There are also Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin that do not appear to have come to the language via any of the major language groups normally associated with Sicilian, i.e. they have been independently derived from a very early Indo-European source. The Sicels are a possible source of such words, but there is also the possibility of a cross-over between ancient Mediterranean words and introduced Indo-European forms. Some examples of Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin:

Greek influences

The following Sicilian words are of a Greek origin (including some examples where it is unclear whether the word is derived directly from Greek, or via Latin):

Germanic influences

From 476 to 535, the Ostrogoths ruled Sicily, although their presence apparently did not impact the Sicilian language.{{sfn|2001|page=18}} The few Germanic influences to be found in Sicilian do not appear to originate from this period. One exception might be {{lang|scn|abbanniari}} or {{lang|scn|vanniari}} "to hawk goods, proclaim publicly", from Gothic {{transl|got|bandwjan}} "to give a signal".^[33] Also possible is {{lang|scn|schimmenti}} "diagonal" from Gothic {{transl|got|slimbs}} "slanting".^[33] Other sources of Germanic influences include the Hohenstaufen rule of the 13th century, words of Germanic origin contained within the speech of 11th-century Normans and Lombard settlers, and the short period of Austrian rule in the 18th century.

Many Germanic influences date back to the time of the Swabian kings (amongst whom Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor enjoyed the longest reign). Some of the words below are "reintroductions" of Latin words (also found in modern Italian) that had been Germanicized at some point (e.g. {{lang|la|vastāre}} in Latin to^[35] {{lang|it|guastare}} in modern Italian). Words that probably originate from this era include:

Arabic influence

In 535, Justinian I made Sicily a Byzantine province, which returned the Greek language to a position of prestige, at least on an official level.^[36] At this point in time the island could be considered a border zone with high levels of bilingualism: Latinisation was mostly concentrated in western Sicily,^[36] whereas Eastern Sicily remained predominantly Greek. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was progressively conquered by Saracens from North Africa (Ifriqiya), from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. The Emirate of Sicily persisted long enough to develop a distinctive local variety of Arabic, Siculo-Arabic (at present extinct in Sicily but surviving as the Maltese language).^[36] Its influence is noticeable in around 100 Sicilian words, most of which relate to agriculture and related activities.{{sfn|Ruffino|2001|pages=18–20}} This is understandable because of the Arab Agricultural Revolution; the Saracens introduced to Sicily their advanced irrigation and farming techniques and a new range of crops, nearly all of which remain endemic to the island to this day.

Throughout the Islamic epoch of Sicilian history, a significant Greek-speaking population remained on the island and continued to use the Greek language, or most certainly a variant of Greek influenced by Tunisian Arabic.^[36] What is less clear is the extent to which a Latin-speaking population survived on the island. While a form of Vulgar Latin clearly survived in isolated communities during the Islamic epoch, there is much debate as to the influence it had (if any) on the development of the Sicilian language, following the re-Latinisation of Sicily (discussed in the next section).

Linguistic developments in the Middle Ages

By 1000 AD, the whole of what is today southern Italy, including Sicily, was a complex mix of small states and principalities, languages and religions.^[36] The whole of Sicily was controlled by Saracens, at the elite level, but the general population remained a mix of Muslims and Greek or Siculo-Arabic speaking Catholic Christians. There were also a component of immigrants from North Africa (Ifriqiya). The far south of the Italian peninsula was part of the Byzantine empire although many communities were reasonably independent from Constantinople. The Principality of Salerno was controlled by Lombards (or Langobards), who had also started to make some incursions into Byzantine territory and had managed to establish some isolated independent city-states.^[41] It was into this climate that the Normans thrust themselves with increasing numbers during the first half of the 11th century.

Norman and French influence

When the two most famous of Southern Italy's Norman adventurers, Roger of Hauteville and his brother, Robert Guiscard, began their conquest of Sicily in 1061, they already controlled the far south of Italy (Apulia and Calabria). It took Roger 30 years to complete the conquest of Sicily (Robert died in 1085).^[41] In the aftermath of the Norman conquest of Sicily, the revitalization of Latin in Sicily had begun, and some Norman and Norman-French words would be absorbed:^[42] but many etymologies are disputed and the only sure marker of a typical Norman word is its Scandinavian origin, such words do not exist in Sicilian.

Other Gallic influences

The Northern Italian influence is of particular interest. Even to the present day, Gallo-Italic of Sicily exists in the areas where the Northern Italian colonies were the strongest, namely Novara, Nicosia, Sperlinga, Aidone and Piazza Armerina.^[36] The Siculo-Gallic dialect did not survive in other major Italian colonies, such as Randazzo, Bronte and Paternò (although they influenced the local Sicilian vernacular). The Gallo-Italic influence was also felt on the Sicilian language itself, as follows:^[36]

Old Occitan influence

The origins of another Romance influence, that of Old Occitan, had three possible sources:

Sicilian School of Poetry

It was during the reign of Frederick II (or Frederick I of Sicily) between 1198 and 1250, with his patronage of the Sicilian School, that Sicilian became the first of the modern Italic languages to be used as a literary language.^[45] The influence of the school and the use of Sicilian itself as a poetic language was acknowledged by the two great Tuscan writers of the early Renaissance period, Dante and Petrarch. The influence of the Sicilian language should not be underestimated in the eventual formulation of a lingua franca that was to become modern Italian. The victory of the Angevin army over the Sicilians at Benevento in 1266 not only marked the end of the 136-year Norman-Swabian reign in Sicily but also effectively ensured that the centre of literary influence would eventually move from Sicily to Tuscany.^[45] While Sicilian, as both an official and a literary language, would continue to exist for another two centuries, the language would soon follow the fortunes of the kingdom itself in terms of prestige and influence.

Catalan influence

Following the Sicilian Vespers of 1282, the kingdom was to come under the influence of the Crown of Aragon,{{sfn|Runciman|1958}} and so the Catalan language (and the closely related Aragonese) would add a new layer of vocabulary in the succeeding century. For the whole of the 14th century, both Catalan and Sicilian were the official languages of the royal court.{{sfn|Hughes|2011}} Sicilian was also used to record the proceedings of the Parliament of Sicily (one of the oldest parliaments in Europe) and for other official purposes.^[46] While it is often difficult to determine whether a word has come to us directly from Catalan (as opposed to Provençal or Spanish), the following are likely to be such examples:

Spanish period to the modern age

By the time the crowns of Castille and Aragon were united in the late 15th century, the Italianisation of written Sicilian in the parliamentary and court records had commenced. By 1543 this process was virtually complete, with the Tuscan dialect of Italian becoming the lingua franca of the Italian peninsula and supplanting written Sicilian.^[46]

Spanish rule lasted over three centuries (not counting the Aragonese and Bourbon periods on either side) and had a significant influence on the Sicilian vocabulary. The following words are of Spanish derivation:

Since the Italian Unification (the Risorgimento of 1860–1861), the Sicilian language has been significantly influenced by (Tuscan) Italian. During the Fascist period it became obligatory that Italian be taught and spoken in all schools, whereas up to that point, Sicilian had been used extensively in schools.^[47] This process has quickened since World War II due to improving educational standards and the impact of mass media, such that increasingly, even within the family home, Sicilian is not necessarily the language of choice.^[47] The Sicilian Regional Assembly voted to make the teaching of Sicilian a part of the school curriculum at primary school level, but as of 2007 only a fraction of schools teach Sicilian.^[47] There is also little in the way of mass media offered in Sicilian. The combination of these factors means that the Sicilian language continues to adopt Italian vocabulary and grammatical forms to such an extent that many Sicilians themselves cannot distinguish between correct and incorrect Sicilian language usage.^[48]{{sfn|Bonner|2001|page=21}}{{sfn|Ruffino|2001|pages=90–92}}

Distinguishing features of Sicilian

Phonetics and phonology

Consonants

Sicilian has a number of consonant sounds that, although not unique to Sicilian, certainly set it apart from the other major Romance languages. The most unusual sounds include, but are not limited to, the retroflex consonants.{{sfn|Cipolla|2005|pages=5–9}}^[50]

Vowels

Unlike the seven vowels of Vulgar Latin and many modern Romance languages, the Sicilian vowel system only includes five: a {{IPAslink|ä|a}}, e {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, i {{IPAslink|i}}, o {{IPAslink|ɔ}}, u {{IPAslink|u}}, reduced to only three in unstressed position: a {{IPA|/a/}}, i {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, u {{IPAblink|ʊ}} (unstressed vowels o and e of Latin became unstressed u and i in Sicilian). This causes the vowels u and i to have a far greater presence than o and e in Sicilian,^[36] whereas the opposite is true in other Romance languages such as Spanish and Italian (notwithstanding the conservative nature of Sicilian, which retains the vowel u of the Latin stems -us and -um): in this Sicilian is closer to Portuguese instead (which however spells such unstressed vowels as o and e, too). In addition, one will never find a Sicilian word ending in the unaccented vowels e or o, with the exception of monosyllabic conjunctions and certain recent loanwords: in fact, due to the influence of Italian in the media after World War II, as well as the recent influx of English terminology related to technology and globalization, there is an increasing number of words entering the Sicilian lexicon that do not adhere to the Sicilian vowel system.

Omission of initial i

In the vast majority of instances where the originating word has had an initial i, the Sicilian has dropped it completely. This can also happen occasionally where there was once an initial e, and to a lesser extent a and o. Examples: {{lang|scn|mpurtanti}} "important", {{lang|scn|gnuranti}} "ignorant", {{lang|scn|nimicu}} "enemy", {{lang|scn|ntirissanti}} "interesting", {{lang|scn|llustrari}} "to illustrate", {{lang|scn|mmàggini}} "image", {{lang|scn|cona}} "icon", {{lang|scn|miricanu}} "American".^[54]{{sfn|Camilleri|1998}}

Gemination and contractions

In Sicilian, gemination is distinctive for most consonant phonemes, though a few can only be geminated after a vowel: these are {{IPAslink|b}}, {{IPAslink|dʒ}}, {{IPAslink|ɖ}}, {{IPAslink|ɲ}}, {{IPAslink|ʃ}} and {{IPAslink|ts}}. Rarely indicated in writing, spoken Sicilian also exhibits syntactic gemination (or dubbramentu),{{sfn|Cipolla|2004|page=14}} which means that the first consonant of a word is lengthened when it is preceded by certain vowel-ending words, e.g. {{lang|scn|è caru}} {{IPA-scn|ˌɛ kˈkaːɾʊ|}}.{{sfn|Bonner|2001|page=13}}

The letter j at the start of a word can have two separate sounds, depending on what precedes the word.{{sfn|Cipolla|2005}} For instance, in {{lang|scn|jornu}} ("day"), the j is pronounced {{IPAblink|j}} as in English y, {{IPA-scn|ˈjɔɾnʊ|}}. However, after a nasal consonant or triggered by syntactic gemination, it is pronounced {{IPAblink|ɟ}} (like English gu in {{lang|en|argue|italic=yes}}) as in {{lang|scn|un jornu}} "one day" {{IPA-scn|ʊɲ ˈɟɔɾnʊ|}} or {{lang|scn|tri jorna}} ("three days") {{IPA-scn|ˌʈɽi ɟˈɟɔɾna|}}.{{sfn|Cipolla|2004|pages=10–11}}

Another difference between the written and spoken languages is the extent to which contractions will occur in everyday speech. Thus a common expression such as {{lang|scn|avemu a accattari...}} ("we have to go and buy...") will generally be reduced to {{lang|scn|amâ 'ccattari}} when talking to family and friends.^[56]

The circumflex is commonly used in denoting a wide range of contractions in the written language, in particular, the joining of simple prepositions and the definite article. Examples: {{lang|scn|di lu}} = {{lang|scn|dû}} ("of the"), {{lang|scn|a lu}} = {{lang|scn|ô}} ("to the"), {{lang|scn|pi lu}} = {{lang|scn|pû}} ("for the"), {{lang|scn|nta lu}} = {{lang|scn|ntô}} ("in the"), etc.{{sfn|Bonner|2001|page=39}}^[54]

Gender and the formation of plurals

Generally speaking, Sicilian has the same ending for feminine nouns (and their adjectives) as most Romance languages, that being the {{IPA|/a/}}, for example: {{lang|scn|casa}} ("house"), {{lang|scn|porta}} ("door"), {{lang|scn|carta}} ("paper"), but there are exceptions to this rule, for example, {{lang|scn|soru}} ("sister"), {{lang|scn|ficu}} ("fig"). The ending for masculine nouns is generally {{IPA|/u/}}, for example: {{lang|scn|omu}} ("man"), {{lang|scn|libbru}} ("book"), {{lang|scn|nomu}} ("name"). The ending {{IPA|/i/}} can be either masculine or feminine.^[57]

Unlike standard Italian, Sicilian uses one letter i, to denote the plural for both masculine and feminine nouns, for example: {{lang|scn|casi}} ("houses" or "cases"), {{lang|scn|porti}} ("doors" or "harbors"), {{lang|scn|tàuli}} ("tables"). There are also many exceptions to this rule which are often not shared by Italian, for example the following masculine plurals: {{lang|scn|libbra}} ("books"), {{lang|scn|jorna}} ("days"), {{lang|scn|jòcura}} ("games"), {{lang|scn|vrazza}} ("arms"), {{lang|scn|jardina}} ("gardens"), {{lang|scn|scrittura}} ("writers"), {{lang|scn|signa}} ("signs"), etc.,^[57] while the following three common nouns are invariable in the plural: {{lang|scn|manu}} ("hand[s]"), {{lang|scn|ficu}} ("fig[s]") and {{lang|scn|soru}} ("sister[s]").{{sfn|Pitrè|2002|page=54}}

Verbs

Verb "to have"

Sicilian only has one auxiliary verb, {{lang|scn|aviri}} "to have".^[58]{{sfn|Bonner|2001|page=123}} This verb is also used to denote obligation (e.g. {{lang|scn|avi a jiri}} {{IPA-scn|ˌaːvjaɟˈɟiːɾɪ|}} "[he/she] has to go"),^[56] and to form the future tense, as Sicilian, for the most part, no longer has a synthetic future tense; for example: {{lang|scn|avi a cantari}} "[he/she] will sing" ({{IPA-scn|ˌaːvjakkanˈtaːɾɪ|}} or {{IPA-scn|ˌaːwakkanˈdaːɾɪ|}}, depending on the dialect).^[58]

Verb "to go" and the periphrastic future

As in English, and most Romance languages, Sicilian may use the verb {{lang|scn|jiri}} "to go" to signify the act of being about to do something. {{lang|scn|Vaiu a cantari}} "I'm going to sing" (pronounced {{IPA-scn|ˌvaːjwakkanˈtaːɾɪ|}}) "I'm going to sing". In this way, {{lang|scn|jiri}} + {{lang|scn|a}} + infinitive can also be a way to form the simple future construction.^[59]

Tenses and moods

The main conjugations in Sicilian are illustrated below with the verb {{lang|scn|èssiri}} "to be".{{sfn|Pitrè|2002|pages=61–64}}

Examples of the written language

Extracts from three of Sicily's more celebrated poets are offered below to illustrate the written form of Sicilian over the last few centuries: Antonio Veneziano, Giovanni Meli and Nino Martoglio.

A translation of the Lord's Prayer can also be found in J. K. Bonner.{{sfn|Bonner|2001|page=180}} This is written with three variations: a standard literary form from the island of Sicily and a southern Apulian literary form.

Extract from Antonio Veneziano

Celia, Lib. 2

Extract from Giovanni Meli

Don Chisciotti e Sanciu Panza (Cantu quintu)

Extract from Nino Martoglio

Briscula 'n Cumpagni

Influences on the Italian language

As one of the most spoken languages of Italy, Sicilian has notably influenced the Italian lexicon. In fact, there are several Sicilian words that are nowadays part of the Italian language; they usually refer to things closely associated to Sicilian culture, with some notable exceptions:{{sfn|Zingarelli|2006)}}

Language situation today

Sicily

Sicilian is estimated to have 5,000,000 speakers.^[60] However, it remains very much a home language spoken among peers and close associates. Regional Italian has encroached on Sicilian, most evidently in the speech of the younger generations.^[61]

In terms of the written language, in Sicily it is mainly restricted to poetry and theatre. The education system does not support the language, despite recent legislative changes, as mentioned previously. Local universities do not carry courses in Sicilian, or where they do it is described as {{lang|it|dialettologia}}, that is, the study of dialects.

Diaspora

Outside Sicily, there is an extensive Sicilian diaspora living in several major cities across South and North America, as well as other parts of Europe and Australia, where Sicilian has been preserved to varying degrees.

Media

The Sicilian-American organization Arba Sicula publishes stories, poems and essays, in Sicilian with English translations, in an effort to preserve the Sicilian language, in Arba Sicula, its bi-lingual annual journal (latest issue: 2017), and in a biennial newsletter entitled Sicilia Parra.

The movie La Terra Trema (1948) is entirely in Sicilian, using many local, non-professional actors.

Other words and phrases

See also

Notes

References

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