“Mersha Nahusenay”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Mersha Nahusenay (c.1850 – c.1937) was a reformist and pioneer of change who made important contributions to the modernization and independence of Ethiopia. One of the closest advisors to Emperor Menelik II, he went on to become the founder and first governor of Dire Dawa, the second largest city in Ethiopia, and its environs (1902–1905). Prior to that he was governor of the strategic and frontier district of Jaldessa (Gildessa) where he also held the position of head of customs. His public career lasted over three decades from the era of Menelik II until the reign of Haile Selassie. He was one of the most recognized Ethiopians of his time. He knew the French language and was open to European ideas and way of life earning him admiration abroad. His most enduring legacy was the construction, maintenance and security of the first railway which he oversaw at the request of Menilek. Mersha belongs to a generation who took advantage of the relative stability of the late 19th – early 20th century to implement a series of wide-ranging political, economic and social reforms which put the country on the path to modernization ushering in a new era.

Early life

Childhood and Formative Years

Ato (Mr.) Mersha Nahusenay (አቶ መርሻ ናሁሠናይ) was born around 1850^[1] near the town of Ankober, the former capital of Shewa.

According to oral history, Mersha came from a family of priests. His parents were strict followers of the Ethiopian Orthodox faith and religion played a central role in their life. Mersha's childhood was hence heavily influenced by events involving the Church where he was also baptized. Family lore further indicates that his father possessed a land given to him in return for the service he rendered to the church. In addition to holding lands, churches at the time received considerable assistance from the royal palace^[2] which they then used to provide key services to their members and communities, including the education of children. Thus Mersha was taught reading and writing at an early age and received traditional church education. Whether or not he had any siblings remains unknown although the name Mersha in the Amharic language implies a desire to forget a traumatic experience such as the loss of a previous child.

Growing up, Mersha spent a great deal of time on the farm with his parents. He traveled to various places within Shewa and beyond allowing him to interact with a diverse group of people and explore opportunities which existed for a career in a secular field. For example, early on he learned to appreciate the importance local as well as foreign languages. Beyond these sketchy details, little is known about Mersha’s early life at this point. It is unclear, for example, if he had royal ancestry. The fact that he was later married to the daughter of one of Menilek’s trusted servants suggests, however, that the family had close ties to the palace.

Overall there is little doubt that Mersha's formative and early adulthood experiences helped him prepare for his long and illustrious public career. It's worth noting that today Ankober is one of many districts (woredas) of Ethiopia. But back then, it was the capital of one of several powerful kingdoms. The following quote encapsulates the vitality of the Ankober area at the time:^[3]

By mid-19th century, Ankober had established trade and diplomatic ties with the outside world. As a result there was strong public interest in international affairs, foreign languages, history, geography and medicine, as well as the design, manufacturing and function of machines and tools as documented by missionaries.^[4]

Under Menilek, the last ruler of Shewa (1865–1889), Ankober rapidly evolved into a vibrant political and economic center. Trade was expanded to the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea via Harar.

Mersha also grew up in one of the most historic and consequential periods in the nation's history. The second half of the nineteenth century was a turning point in the sense that it marked the end a long period of deep divisions within and between the various kingdoms located in the northern part of the country known as the Era of Princes or Zemene Mesafint (1769–1855). Emperor Tewodros (Tewodros II) was the first ruler (1855–1868) to try and unify the northern kingdoms. Also Included in Tewodros’s vision was the introduction of European-style civilization. His efforts were cut short however by internal resistance and external challenges as well as his untimely death. Emperor Yohannes (Yohannes IV) further pursued the unification agenda during his reign (1872–1889), but he was unfortunately killed in a war with Mahdist Sudan. Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913), his successor, the fortunate one to realize the dreams of his predecessors and much more. He succeeded in bringing together, under a cental authority, northern and southern territories. Through a combination of diplomacy and military campaigns, he was able to create a new empire paving the way for the emergence of modern Ethiopia.

Menilek's extraordinary achievements, including his leadership in the decisive victory over Italy at Adwa, in 1896, enabled him to put the country on the path to stability and modernization. According to the prominent Ethiopian historian Tekletsadiq Mekuria,^[5] Menilek’s top priorities included: negotiating Ethiopia’s borders with the three European colonial powers (i.e., France, Britain and Italy) who controlled much of Eastern Africa; securing access to the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea as a way of improving trade relations with Europe and beyond; maintaining security and stability across the vast empire; implementing wide-ranging political, economic and social reforms; and building Ethiopia’s image abroad.

As will be seen below, Mersha was at the forefront of most, if not all, of these undertakings. He answered repeated calls for public service and rose to the occasion by taking on challenging tasks. More importantly, he was a strong advocate for reform and European-style modernization. The renowned Ethiopian historian Tekletsadiq Mekuria wrote in his book Atse Menilek and the Unity of Ethiopia:

Later life

Whether or not Mersha Nahusenay held any government positions before Menilek II became Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889 remains unknown. What is evident from historical records is sometime in the early 1890s, at the age of about 40, he left his birthplace and settled in the Harar province where he became a prominent public official. By then, Ankober had declined in part due to the rise of Addis Abeba (Addis Ababa), the new capital of Ethiopia founded in 1886 by Menilek and his influential wife Empress Taytu Betul (1851–1918).

Governor of Jaldessa and Head of Imperial Customs

Mersha’s relocation to Harar marked the beginning of his long and distinguished career. By some accounts as early as 1892,^[6] but surely by 1895, he was appointed governor of Jaldessa (Gildessa, Jildessa, Guildessa, Gheldessa), a historic and strategic district near the present city of Harar.^[7] According to one source.^[8], at the time, Jaldessa had approximately 6,000 inhabitants at the time compared to 8,000 in the port city of Djibouti and 30,000 in Harar. Not only was Jaldessa a frontier town to Menilek's empire, but it was also located along an important caravan route connecting Ethiopia with the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coast. As a result, all visitors were required to pass through an armed and customs post established there by the Ethiopian authority and administered by Mersha.^[9] As chief of customs, Jaldessa Mersha oversaw the import of all goods. Caravans were stopped and inspected. Import duty of 10 per cent was levied on merchandise generating important revenue for the empire. The economic value of Jaldessa grew considerably after the port of Djibouti became operational. However, it sharply declined following the founding of Dire Dawa, in 1902.

As governor, Mersha controlled and administered a vast area between Ethiopian borders with the French and British Somalilands and the Awash River. The territory was inhabited by Somalis, Oromos, Afars and other ethnic groups. He served under Ras Mekonnen Woldemichael (Makonnen Wolde Mikael), who was governor of Harar Province until his untimely death in 1906. The Armenian Sarkis Terzian (1868–1915)^[10] served as governor of Jaldessa before him. Terzian, a personality well-known to scholars of Ethiopian history, served Menilek in various capacities, including the import of arms and ammunition.^[11] Apparently, there was confusion at times about who owned what. On one occasion, Mersha confiscated arms claimed by Terzian, according to distinguished historian Richard Pankhurst. Lord Hindlip, a British businessman and adventurer and a member of an Anglo-American expedition, described his visit to Mersha's residence as follows:

Furthermore, Jaldessa was at the center of international negotiations between Menilek and the three colonial powers. Article 3 of the 1897 treaty signed between Britain and Ethiopia, for example, stated that the route between Zeyla (Zeila) and Harar via Gildessa should remain open for the commercial interests of the two countries.^[13] Mersha was regularly consulted on relevant matters. He was also directly responsible for implementation of agreements. For instance, in 1896, he hosted Cyrille Macaire (Kyrillos Makarios), a coptic Egyptian bishop who came as a special envoy of Pope Leo XIII to plead with Menilek to free the Italian prisoners from the battle of Adwa.^[14] When the prisoners were freed ultimately, they were brought to an area near Gildessa to meet with an Italian Red Cross team before being transported to Harar for safe return to Italy. Mersha visited Djibouti on several occasions, including at the request of Emperor Menilek.^[15] His knowledge of French was invaluable during his foreign trips.

Promoter of the progressive image of Ethiopia

Following the victory at Adwa (1896), there was a heightened global interest in strengthening diplomatic and trade relations with Ethiopia. A large number of foreign nationals, including diplomats, journalists, writers, scientists and explorers visited the empire. The visitors were intrigued by Menilek's wisdom and accomplishments. Realizing the significance of the moment for the future, the emperor was equally determined to build a progressive image of his nation. What better place to create a good first impression than the frontier town of Jaldessa? Lord Edward Gleichen, the British courtier, officer and author who visited Ethiopia in 1897 and who was a member of Sir Rennell Rodd's diplomatic mission wrote the following:^[16]

Most visitors came to the country through the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea and many camped at Jaldessa for at least a day before traveling further to Addis Abeba, Harar or other parts of the new empire. Thus, Mersha was tasked with providing logistical and other forms of assistance to the guests. He was uniquely positioned to meet and interact with a large number of Europeans and other foreign nationals. In an article published in Le Figaro (April 1901), the French journalist and author Hughes Le Roux noted the following after a long discussion with Mersha.^[17]

The following is a partial list of notables who have either interacted with or hosted by Mersha at Gildessa or Dire Dawa:

Despite robust diplomatic efforts by Menilek and his domestic as well as foreign advisors, there was a great deal of skepticism initially among many Europeans that Ethiopia was ready to embrace modernization. In an article titled The Menelik Myth, published in 1899, for example, vicomte Edmond de Poncins, the wealthy French naturalist and explorer, concluded:^[18]

In contrast, there were those who offered unwavering support for the expansion of trade and investment in Ethiopia. Menilek’s closest European advisors such as the Swiss engineer Alfred Ilg and the French trader Leon Chefneux (“chief commerce advisor”) were incontestably at the top of the list. Mersha worked closely with both of them. But there were others as well. Casimir Mondon-Vidailhet, the French journalist and contributor to the Le Temps, was another important figure who played a major role in advancing Ethio-French relations. Due to his passion for horticulture, Mondon-Vidailhet may have also played a role in popularizing the eucalyptus tree (የባሕር ዛፍ). He also studied local languages (e.g. Amharic, Guraghe, Harari, etc.) and wrote books about them. More relevantly, Mondon-Vidailhet helped advance the progressive image of Menilek and Ethiopia in Europe and the United States. He did this primarily through his speeches and writings. In an interview that he gave to The New York Times, in 1898, Mondon defended Ethiopia's records and potential:^[19]

Mersha was a strong proponent of opening Ethiopia to the world. He encouraged 'modern' education such as the one offered by missionary schools. He supported trade ties with Europe, particularly France, Ethiopia's major strategic ally at the time. The French government awarded Mersha the El-Anouar Nishan in April 1905.

Head of the first railway construction

The first and most significant example of European direct investment in Ethiopia was the construction of Ethiopia’s first railway. The agreement to create a company for the construction of the railroad was first signed in 1894 between Menilek and Alfred Ilg. The primary European stakeholder was obviously France although British investors also owned shares and bonds at least until 1902 which is when the line reached Addis-Harar, later renamed Dire Dawa.

Mersha was a key figure in the negotiations, construction and security of the railway during the initial phases of the project (1897–1911). When the Djibouti railroad reached the Ethiopian border town of Dewele (Dawale), in July 1900, he represented the emperor at the inaugural ceremony attended by a delegation of the French government led by Gabriel Louis Angoulvant, acting governor-general of the French Somaliland as well representatives of shareholders and other domestic and foreign diplomats, including Ato Yosef Zagalan, the Ethiopian consul in Djibouti and a dear friend of Mersha.^[20] According to one source, emperor Menilek himself was to be present, but he changed his mind later in protest of the growing interference by the French government in the affairs of the Compagnie Imperiale d'Ethiopie to which he granted concession.^[21] Things became worse and the construction was interrupted for several years following the completion of the Djibouti-Dire Dawa line. When the work resumed in 1909, Mersha was once again called to serve. The task given to him and other local officials was to oversee the extension of the meter-gauge line up to Awash. The railway reached Addis Abeba only in 1917. By then emperor Menilek had died and his daughter Zewditu was head of the empire.

(*The above letter has been included in the recent book titled 'Emperor Menilek's Domestic Letters' as letter #1898 (Paulos Gnogno collections); Aster Nega Publishers; 2010 p. 517).

The historian Richard Pankhurst called the first railway “the country’s greatest technological achievement of the period.”^[22] It led to rapid expansion of domestic and foreign trade. By cutting the amount of travel time to the coast in half, for example, the railroad increased the import and export of commodities drastically. It accelerated the process of urbanization as it paved the way to the rise of new settlements and villages and transformation of towns such as Harar and Addis Abeba. The movement of people from south to north and vice versa grew considerably. In short, the railway made life better for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of Ethiopians. More importantly, it connected the country to the sea. Robert P Skinner, the diplomat who led the first US mission, in 1903–04, noted the following about the importance of the railway to the economy^[23]

Pioneer and the first governor of Dire Dawa

The conclusion of the Djibouti-Dire Dawa railway, in 1902, marked the birth of Dire Dawa, the second largest city in Ethiopia. Shortly after, Mersha was ordered to move the Jaldessa custom house and his residence to the new terminus making him the first governor of the railway city. Not only he was at the right place at the right time, but this was a natural extension of his administrative responsibilities. Getahun Mesfin Haile, an expert on the history of Dire Dawa wrote:

Thus, it didn't take long before residential communities appeared and roads, offices and workshops as well as other critical facilities were built under the leadership of Leon Chefneux and Mersha.^[26] In the first several years of its founding, residents of the new town and the Franco-Ethiopian railway company were able to lay the foundation for what later became a French-style, cosmopolitan city. Sadly, unlike other towns, foreigners and locals did not live in the same area. Kezira or Gezira became a European quarter while Megala was inhabited by natives.

Richard Pankhurst called Dire Dawa “Ethiopia’s first modern town.”^[27] Not only that it was built differently, but its administration was also unique. Historian Shiferaw Bekele noted:^[28]

Mersha served as governor from 1902 until 1906. He was in charge of administrative as well as judicial affairs. He even held courts "under a tree" in the early years of his tenure.^[29] He was succeeded by Ato Negatu Gugsa. The Dire Dawa municipality did not emerge until sometime between 1915 and 1920.^[30]

Chief of railway security

The agreements signed by the Ethiopian government and the railway company required Ethiopia to deploy a police force to safeguard the line and safety of employees.^[31] The mission was extremely dangerous due to local hostilities. Mersha became head of railway security full time in 1906. His strategy for success included working with local chiefs and leaders. In fact he also assumed the position of chief of the Issa territory which much of the opposition to the construction came from. Shiferaw Bekele wrote:

He was in charge of the recruitment, training of the security personnel; negotiated their wage with the company; and settled disputes. He had always been the middle man between the railway company and Ethiopians. That involved making sure that the company honored its contractual obligations as well. As early as September 1900, for example, Mr. J. Gerolimato, the British consul agent in Harar, sent the following message to his boss, James Hayes Sadler, the Consul-General of the British-Somaliland:

His prior experience as chief of Harar police must have prepared him for the challenges of the position^[34] The railway police was in charge of stability and peace Dire Dawa and its surroundings as well.^[35] which he held until the mid-1920s with the exception of his brief dismissal by Lij Iyasu in 1916.

The Dawn of Modernization

The desire to introduce European style modernization was not unique to Emperor Menelik II. However, it was under him that the country took important practical steps in terms of establishing modern institutions and structure of governance.^[36]^[37]^[38] Transport and communication got a huge boost. The first telephone and telegraph were introduced following the first railway. Major roads were built and bicycles and automobiles appeared for the first time. The tax system was restructured. A modern monetary system was created. The first bank (Bank of Abyssinia) was established. A national currency was launched. The governance system underwent significant reorganization. The first cabinet of ministers was formed. Each of the six districts had two judges appointed by Menilek himself. The position of a supreme judge was created. The first public schools; the first newspaper, the first hotels, the first hospitals and post offices emerged. The list goes on. Although Mersha was principally involved in the construction of the railway and establishment of "modern" customs, he also participated in other important reforms such as the creation of postal and telegraph services.

After Menilek died in 1913, following a long illness, he was replaced by his grandson Iyasu V. Mersha was about sixty years of age at the time. During his brief reign (1913–1916), Iyasu seems to have continued some of the reforms which he inherited. However, he also made a number of miscalculations resulting in his removal from power. In 1915, for example, Iyasu appointed Hasib Ydlibi (Idlibi), a Turk of Syrian origin with business experience, governor of Dire Dawa and Neggadras of Harar.^[39] The appointment was kept secret from Dejazmach Teferi (Tafari) Mekonnen, his cousin and governor of Harar Province.^[40]

In July 1916, Iyasu took the unprecedented step of deposing Teferi from his governorship creating further tensions between them and leading to anger in a province traditionally ruled by that family, starting with the late Ras Mekonnen.

Iyasu also seem to have chosen a policy which sought to alienated traditional European allies such as France and strengthen relations with Germany and Turkey (then Ottoman Empire).^[41]

Shortly before his ouster, Iyasu removed Mersha from his post at the railway company and as chief of Issa territory and appointed Neggadras Abubakar Mahammad, another important historic figure in Ethiopian history. Ironically, just months before their dismissal, both Dejach Teferi and Mersha had accompanied Iyasu during his trip to the region along with a number of other notables, including Mikael Berru (a German educated, British agency interpreter and father of the Sorbonne graduate Lij Seifu Mikael) and Tesemma Eshete.^[42]

The radical changes were quickly picked up by foreign media. The move was reported and interpreted as a plan to favor Muslims over Christians, a sentiment shared by many in the country.

There is no doubt that Iyasu tried to nurture close relations with the Muslim community and was married Fatima, the daughter of Abubakar, raising questions about his intentions and vision. Abubakar came from a family of rich Muslim Afar traders who made enormous contributions to Menilek commercially, administratively and diplomatically.^[44] His father, Mahammad (also Negaddras) was the governor of the historic town of Aliyu Amba (Shoa Province) while he himself served as the governor of Shenno, another commercial center. His grandfather, Abubakar Ibrahim Chehem, was a notable statesman and the Sultan or Pasha of Somalia’s port city of Zeila (Zeyla) before it became part of the British Somaliland. However some scholars argue today that this was all part of his efforts to consolidate his power by integrating into the empire marginal territories such as the Afar state.

However, the situation was much more complex. Although Mersha was a Christian, he did not adhere to the historically dominant Orthodox faith. Rather he was converted to Catholicism and subjected to persecution like many of his fellow worshippers.^[46]^[47]^[48] As a result, it appears his actions had more to do with consolidating the imperial power through various means. In that regard, he was no different from his predecessors and successors. Mersha's absence was a source of great concern to the railway company in part due to his long and dedicated service and reputation. This was obvious from one of the letters that Emperor Menilek wrote to him. The following comment made by Mr. de Mazérieux, the company's administrator, captures that sentiment:

English translation: “With Ato Marcha, who was very knowledgeable of the practices and methods of CIE (i.e., Compagnie Imperiale d’Ethiopie), and who was absolutely devoted, difficulties were quickly resolved. Abu-Baker is very well known in Abyssinia and Cie, so we hope that things will be the same with him.”^[49]

Mersha was restored to his position under Empress Zewditu, Menilek's daughter, who ruled Ethiopia from 1916 until 1930. Teferi Mekonnen was regent to the throne during this period and went on to rule Ethiopia as Emperor Haile Selassie I(1930–1974) when the empress died.

A prominent Catholic

Mersha was a well-known Catholic who played an important role in the spread of the faith in the Harar province and beyond. His wife Tedeneqyalesh was the daughter of Ato Mekbeb (also Mekev, Makeb and Makbeb) who was converted to Catholicism in the late 1860s by the Italian missionary Cardinal Guglielmo Massaja or Abba Messias as he was known in Ethiopia. Martial De Salviac, the French missionary who lived in Ethiopia at the end of the 19th century, wrote the following:

Mersha's children attended mission schools and followed their father's new faith. Benito Sylvain, the Haitian lawyer, author and anti-slavery activist who visited Ethiopia a few times during the late 19th and early 20th century wrote:^[51]

Mission schools such as those founded by the French missionary Andre Jarosseau (Abba Endryas) trained a generation of young Ethiopians. Recent biographies (e.g. Ras Emru Haile Selassie) shed light on the importance of these schools. Mersha strongly encouraged the introduction of modern (non-secular) education in addition to religious training. In his autobiography, Captain Alemayehu Abebe, one of the pioneers of Ethiopian aviation and arguably the first black African pilot of a commercial jet airliner, wrote:^[52]

Another important biography by Mickael Bethe-Selassié^[53] describes in detail the historic contributions of Catholic Ethiopians during the first half of the 20th century. Many, including Mersha Nahusenay and the author’s uncle Berhane-Marqos Welde-Tsadiq, played a role in the modernization efforts of Emperors Menilek and Haile Selassié. The biographer argues that these Catholics form a distinct sub-group within the larger community of educated men also known as La Jeune Ethiopie. However, the historic ties between Catholic and Orthodox Christian intellectuals have also been stressed by Mickael as well other scholars.

Death and legacy

Mersha retired in the mid-1920s, but he maintained contact with friends such as the missionary A. Jarousseau, according to historian Bahru Zewde.^[55] His retirement comes after a long public service of important contributions in four key areas: border and railway security, public administration, economic development and diplomacy. Mersha soon fell ill and was confined to bed for almost a decade. He died in his mid-eighties, during the Italian occupation, and was laid to rest in the city of Harar.

Mersha nurtured a large family. He and his wife Tedeneqyalesh were blessed with eleven children: Beyene, Negest, Zewditu, Alemu, Worqe, Desta, Yosef, Marqos, Negatu, Zegeye, and Medemdemya. He encouraged his children to attend school and to learn foreign languages. Beyene Mersha, his eldest child, studied French. Even his daughter (probably Zewditu) knew French and read a welcome speech to Colonel Jean-Baptiste Marchand (1863–1934), the French officer and explorer who traveled through Harar in 1899, according to the missionary Martial de Salviac.^[56] Mersha took his children to important public events. Martial describes how Mersha, a proud father, attended the opening ceremony of the Dawale railway station in 1900 surrounded by "a beautiful crowd of eight children."^[57]

The young Beyene Mersha traveled to France and Italy with Andre Jarosseau.^[58] In 1903, on behalf of his father, he met in Dire Dawa with R.P. Skinner, the American diplomat sent by Theodore Roosevelt to sign a trade treaty with Menilek.^[59] Mersha himself was present, however, when the first ever US diplomatic mission was ready to return home. He was the one who conveyed the farewell message from the Emperor delivered over the phone. Beyene was active in many areas of public service. He was later appointed by Menilek as head of the postal and telephone office established in the frontier town of Dawale.^[60] He went on to become balambaras and even took part in the campaign to remove Iyasu under the leadership of Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat.^[61] In 1931, during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, he was appointed director of the first Ethiopian School for Girls founded in Addis Abeba by Empress Menen. He also served as head of the Dessie-Asseb road construction project undertaken by a team of Dutch engineers, according to a recently published book by the renowned Blata Merse Hazen Wolde Qirqos^[62].

Ato Denqu, husband of Negest Mersha, was appointed in 1907 as the first head of the Dire Dawa Post Office.^[63] He traveled to Europe (e.g. Switzerland and Italy) to attend meetings of the International Postal Union after Ethiopia became a member in 1908.^[64] Many grandchildren and great-grandchildren live and work in Ethiopia and around the world. The most notable descendant today, Ato Abinet Gebremeskel, is a successful businessman and philanthropist in Ethiopia. The author of this short biography (click here for Amharic version of the Bio), is the grandson of Zegeye Mersha and great-grandson of Mersha.

Mersha's legacy includes a street named after him in Kezira (Gezira), Dire Dawa since the time of Emperor Haile Selassie. He was remembered and honored when the railway city celebrated its 105th anniversary in December 2007.^[65]

However, Mersha is still very much a forgotten hero. His biography remains unwritten and his distinguished service is poorly known by many scholars and students of Ethiopian history. In his book titled Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The reformist Intellectuals of the early twentieth century,^[66] Professor Bahru Zewde describes the contributions of many historic personalities of that dynamic era. The book does not mention Mersha as a pioneer. However, some of the reformist intellectuals discussed had either administered the offices he helped establish or occupied the positions he held before. Neggadras Gebrehiwot Baykedagn (c.1885-1918), arguably the foremost intellectual of the time, for example, was director of the Dire Dawa customs administration.^[67]

Fitawrari Tekle Hawariat Tekle-Mariam (1884–1977), who later became governor of Jigjiga; credited for founding Asebe Teferi; and is best known for playing a prominent role in the drafting of the 1931 constitution, was chief of the railway station briefly during Lij Iyasu. He was also among the first Ethiopians to travel abroad for education. As a matter of fact, shortly before the young Tekle Hawaryat departed for Russia, in 1896, Mersha gave him his blessings. We find the following interesting account in his autobiography,:^[68]

The last few decades of the 19th century marked the beginning of modernization in Ethiopian history in the sense that they opened the door to new and better conditions of life and work. Significant improvements took place during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie in areas such as manufacturing, transportation (e.g. aviation) and education. Trade and foreign direct investment continued to play a key role as well. Despite an economic decline in the two decades following the 1974 popular revolution, primarily due to severe droughts and civil war but also bad policies, the country underwent a radical transformation bringing the end of the feudal (ባላባት) system paving the way for greater participation of people in political and economic activities. The current (post-1990s) period of unprecedented growth, characterized by a strong public sector, expanding private sector and major development of critical infrastructure (e.g. roads, new Djibouti-Addis railway, etc.), if maintained, could lead to greater internal integration, prosperity and stability. When all is said and done, however, there is broad consensus that much of the progress made over the last century is deeply rooted in the historic events and reforms of the late 19th - early 20th century.

References

1. ^{{cite journal|last=Delines|first=Michel|title=Les Cosaques chez le negus’ (Казаки в Абиссинии)|journal=Bibliotheque Universelle et le Revue Suisse.|date=Jan 1901|volume=XXI|pages=25–60}}
2. ^{{cite book|last=Crummey|first=Doland|title=Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century|date=2000|publisher=University of Illinois Press.}}
3. ^{{cite book|last=David Anderson; Richard Rathbone|title=Africa’s Urban Past|date=2000|publisher=James Currey Publishers.}}
4. ^{{cite book|last=Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf|title=Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf, Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society|date=1843|location=London}}
5. ^{{cite book|last=Tekle-tsadik Mekuria|title=Atse Menilek ena Yeityopia Andennet (Menilek and Ethiopia’s Unity)|date=1991|publisher=Kuraz Printing Agency.|location=Addis Abeba}}
6. ^{{cite book|last=Mickaël Bethe-Selassié|title=La Jeune Ethiopie: Un haut-fonctionnaire éthiopien - Berhana-Marqos Walda-Tsadeq (1892–1943)|date=2009|publisher=L’Harmattan.|location=Paris|page=23}}
7. ^{{cite journal|title=Raccolta degli atti stampati|journal=Parlamento. Camera dei deputati.|date=1897|series=Legislation|issue=2}}
8. ^{{cite journal|last=Vicomte De Noailles|title=AMBASSADE Mgr Macaire: AUPRÈS DE MÉNÉLIK EN 1896|journal=Le Correspondant|date=1897|volume=188|series=French periodicals|pages=65–72}}
9. ^{{cite journal|last=Frederick W. Emett|title=An Anglo-American expedition in Abyssinia|journal=The Wide World Magazine: An Illustrated Monthly of True Narrative, Adventure, Travel, Customs and Sport|date=1905|volume=14|pages=472–473}}
10. ^{{cite journal|title=The English Mission to Harar|journal=Scientific American|date=1897|volume=44|issue=Supplement|pages=17982–17984}}
11. ^{{cite journal|last=Richard Pankhurst|title=The History of Ethiopian-Armenian Relations (III): The Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries|volume=XIV|series=Revue Des Études Arméniennes|pages=355–400}}
12. ^Lord Hindlip (1906). Sport and Travel in Abyssinia. https://archive.org/details/sporttravelabyss00hind
13. ^{{cite book|last=Augustus Blandy Wylde|title=Modern Abyssinia|date=1900|publisher=Methuen & Company|page=476}}
14. ^Cyrille évêque de Césarée. Le Prêtre: journal des études ecclésiastiques. Vol. 19. Sueur-Charruey, Paris 1896: 67
15. ^{{cite book|last=Bairu Tafla|title=Ethiopian Records of the Menilek era: Selected Amharic documents from the Nachlass of Alfred Ilg, 1884–1900|date=2000|publisher=Harrassowitz.}}
16. ^{{cite book|last=Edward Gleichen|title=With the Mission to Menelik|date=1898|publisher=E. Arnold.}}
17. ^Hughes Le Roux. Marches d'Ethiopie. Le Figaro. No. 95. April 5, 1901.
18. ^{{cite journal|last=Edmond de Poncins|title=The Menelik Myth|journal=The Living Age|date=1899|volume=221|pages=502–503}}
19. ^{{cite news|title=Menelek and his Empire. Interview with Casimir Mondon-Vidailhet|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1898}}
20. ^{{cite journal|title=Inauguration de la première section du chemin de fer|journal=L'Année Coloniale|date=1900|page=231}}
21. ^ T. Lennox Gilmour (1906). Abyssinia: The Ethiopian Railway and the Powers. London. A. Rivers, Limited.
22. ^{{cite web|last=Richard Pankhurst|title=The beginnings of Ethiopia’s modernisation|url=http://richardpankhurst.wordpress.com/2003/04/15/hello-world/|work=2003}}
23. ^Monthly Consular Reports.: Abyssinia. In Congressional Serial Set. Volume LXXV; June 1904; No. 285: 529–570; U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904 - United States
24. ^{{cite web|title=Dire Dawa Tourism official site|url=http://www.tourdire.com/index.php/en/about-diredawa|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503043633/http://www.tourdire.com/index.php/en/about-diredawa|archivedate=2014-05-03|df=}}
25. ^{{cite news|last=Getahun Mesfin Haile|title=Dire Dawa: Random thoughts on a centenary|newspaper=Addis Tribune|date=2003}}
26. ^{{cite journal|title=L’Abyssinie|journal=Revue de Geographie: annuelle|date=1904|volume=54|pages=143–144}}
27. ^{{cite web|last=Richard Pankhurst|title=The Harar-Dire Dawa Road and the "Road-Construction Association of 1934|url=http://www.everythingharar.com/publication/Harardiredawaroad.pdf|work=1975}}
28. ^{{cite journal|last=Shiferaw Bekele|title=Aspects of the history of Dire Dawa (1902–1936)|date=1989|series=Proceedings of the Fourth Seminar of the Department of History, Addis Ababa University.}}
29. ^{{cite journal|last=Shiferaw Bekele|title=Aspects of the history of Dire Dawa (1902–1936)|date=1989|series=Proceedings of the Fourth Seminar of the Department of History, Addis Ababa University.}}
30. ^{{cite web|title=Dire Dawa Tourism official site|url=http://www.tourdire.com/index.php/en/about-diredawa|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503043633/http://www.tourdire.com/index.php/en/about-diredawa|archivedate=2014-05-03|df=}}
31. ^{{cite web|last=Richard Pankhurst|title=The Franco-Ethiopian Railway and its history|url=http://www.everythingharar.com/publication/The%20Franco-Ethiopian%20Railway%20and%20its%20History%20-%20Pankhurst_pdf.pdf|work=2005}}
32. ^{{cite journal|last=Shiferaw Bekele|title=Aspects of the history of Dire Dawa (1902–1936)|date=1989|series=Proceedings of the Fourth Seminar of the Department of History, Addis Ababa University.}}
33. ^Sessional (Parliamentary) Papers, Volume 48. Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. H.M. Stationery Office, 1901: 62.
34. ^Goedorp, V. With a camera in Somaliland. The World Wide Magazine, Vol. 5; 1900: 505
35. ^Imbert-Vier, Simon. (2011). Tracer des frontières à Djibouti: des territoires et des hommes aux XIXe et XXe siècles. Karthala Editions. Djibouti.
36. ^{{cite web|title=Richard Pankhurst. "The beginnings of Ethiopia’s modernisation". 2003.|url=https://richardpankhurst.wordpress.com/2003/04/15/hello-world/}}
37. ^{{cite book|last=Tekle-tsadik Mekuria|title=Atse Menilek ena Yeityopia Andennet (Menilek and Ethiopia’s Unity)|date=1991|publisher=Kuraz Printing Agency}}
38. ^{{cite book|last=Bahru Zewde|title=A history of Modern Ethiopia (1855–1991)|date=2007|publisher=Addis Abeba University Press}}
39. ^Yidlibi, May (2006). With Ethiopian Rulers (A Biography of Hasib Yidlibi). Addis Ababa University Press.
40. ^{{cite book|last=Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat Tekle Mariam|title=Autobiography|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University Press}}
41. ^{{cite book|last=Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat Tekle Mariam|title=Autobiography|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University Press}}
42. ^{{cite journal|last=Berhanou Abebe|title=e coup d'État du 26 septembre 1916 ou le dénouement d'une décennie de crise|journal=Annales d'Éthiopie|date=2001|volume=17}}
43. ^Journal of the Royal African Society, Volume 16. MacMillan., 1916; pp. 257–58.
44. ^Aramis Houmed Soul é (2014). Lij Iyasu and the Afar. The Life and Times of Lïj Iyasu of Ethiopia: New Insights. (Éloi Ficquet, Wolbert G. C. Smidt, Eds.). LIT Verlag Münster; p. 168.
45. ^Aramis Houmed Soul é (2014). Lij Iyasu and the Afar. The Life and Times of Lïj Iyasu of Ethiopia: New Insights.(Éloi Ficquet, Wolbert G. C. Smidt, Eds.). LIT Verlag Münster; p. 168.
46. ^Mickaël Bethe-Selassié (2009). La Jeune Ethiopie: Un haut-fonctionnaire éthiopien - Berhana-Marqos Walda-Tsadeq (1892–1943). L’Harmattan.
47. ^Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat Tekle Mariam (2005). Autobiography. Addis Abeba University Press, p. 28.
48. ^Bahru Zewde (2005). Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The reformist intellectuals of the early twentieth century. Addis Abeba University Press; p. 96
49. ^{{cite book|last=Rosanna Van Gelder de Pineda|title=Le Chemin de fer de Djibouti a Addis-Abeba|date=1995|publisher=L'Harmattan|page=590}}
50. ^The Oromo: An Ancient People in the State of Menelik.Great African Nation. 1901. As Recounted by Martial De Salviac. Translation from the Original French Edition by Ayalew Kanno (2005): 74–77.
51. ^{{cite book|last=Antoine Bervin|title=Benito Sylvain: Apôtre du relèvement social des Noirs|date=1969|publisher=La Phalange|location=Port-au-Prince, Haiti|pages=41–42}}
52. ^{{cite book|last=Captain Alemayehu Abebe|title=My Life on land and air (Hiwote bemeder ena bayer). Autobiography.|date=2005}}
53. ^{{cite book|last=Mickaël Bethe-Selassié|title=La Jeune Ethiopie: Un haut-fonctionnaire éthiopien - Berhana-Marqos Walda-Tsadeq (1892–1943)|date=2009|publisher=L’Harmattan}}
54. ^{{cite journal|last=Richard Pankhurst|title=Who were the ‘Young Ethiopians’ or (‘Young Abyssinians’)?. An historical Inquiry.|journal=Ethiopian e-Journal of for Research and Innovation Foresight|volume=2|issue=2|url=http://www.nesglobal.org/eejrif4/index.php?journal=admin&page=article&op=view&path[]=21&path[]=141}}
55. ^{{cite book|last=Bahru Zewde|title=Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The reformist intellectuals of the early twentieth century|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University Press}}
56. ^{{cite book|last=Martial de Salviac|title=Un peuple antique, ou une colonie gauloise au pays de Menelik|date=1900|publisher=F. Plantade}}
57. ^{{cite book|last=Martial de Salviac|title=Un peuple antique, ou une colonie gauloise au pays de Menelik|date=1900|publisher=F. Plantade}}
58. ^{{cite book|last=Martial de Salviac|title=Un peuple antique, ou une colonie gauloise au pays de Menelik|date=1900|publisher=F. Plantade}}
59. ^{{cite book|last=Robert P. Skinner|title=Abyssnia-of-today: An Account of the First Mission Sent by the American Government to the Court of the King of Kings, 1903–1904|date=1906|publisher=Longmans, Green & Co.|location=New York}}
60. ^አጤ ምኒልክ በሀገር ውስጥ የተጻጻፏቸው ደብዳቤዎች (2003). ጳውሎስ ኞኞ. አስቴር ነጋ አሳታሚ ድርጅት (ገጽ 506፤ ደብዳቤ ቁጥር 1861). Emperor Menilek's Domestic Letters. 2010 (Paulos Gnogno). Aster Nega Publisher (p. 506; letter No. 1861).
61. ^{{cite book|last=Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat Tekle Mariam|title=Autobiography|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University}}
62. ^ቀዳማዊ ኃይለ ሥላሴ (1922-1927). በብላታ መርስዔ ኀዘን ወልደ ቂርቆስ. አዲስ አበባ ዩኒቨርሲቲ ፕሬስ. 2009: https://www.mersie-hazen.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Book-Excerpt-compressed.pdf
63. ^{{cite book|last=Bairu Tafla|title=Ethiopian Records of the Menilek era: Selected Amharic documents from the Nachlass of Alfred Ilg, 1884–1900.|date=2000|publisher=Harrassowitz.}}
64. ^Two early periodical publications "Djibouti" and "Le Semeur d'Éthiopie" as sources for late 19th century and early 20th century Ethiopian history. Richard Pankhurst. Annales d’Ethiopie. Vol. 19; Issue 19. 2003
65. ^{{cite news|last=ገዛህኝ ይልማ (Gezahegn Yilma)|title=ድሬዳዋ የምዕተ ዓመት ጉዞ (Dire Dawa: A Century's Journey)|newspaper=ድሬ መጽሔት ልዩ እትም: ታህሳስ 2000 ዓ.ም. (Dire magazine; special edition Jan. 2007)}}
66. ^{{cite book|last=Bahru Zewde|title=Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The reformist intellectuals of the early twentieth century|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University Press}}
67. ^{{cite journal|last=Shiferaw Bekele|title=Aspects of the history of Dire Dawa 1902–1936).|date=1989|series=Proceedings of the Fourth Seminar of the Department of History, Addis Ababa University}}
68. ^{{cite book|last=Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat Tekle Mariam|title=Autobiography|date=2005|publisher=Addis Abeba University}}