“Socotra”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Socotra ({{lang-ar|سُقُطْرَى}} {{transl|ar|Suquṭrā}}), also called Soqotra, located between the Guardafui Channel and the Arabian Sea, is the largest of four islands of the Socotra archipelago. The territory is located near major shipping routes and is officially part of Yemen, and had long been a subdivision of the Aden Governorate. In 2004, it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is much closer to the island than Aden (although the nearest governorate was the Al Mahrah Governorate). In 2013, the archipelago became its own governorate, the Socotra Governorate.

The island of Socotra constitutes around 95% of the landmass of the Socotra archipelago. It lies some {{convert|240|km|mi}} east off of the coast of Somalia and {{convert|380|km|mi}} south of the Arabian Peninsula.^[1] While politically a part of Yemen (an Asian country), Socotra and the rest of its archipelago geographically are part of Africa^[2], thus making Yemen a transcontinental country.{{failed verification |discuss=Talk:Yemen#Is Yemen transcontinental? |reason=The reference does not say that Yemen is a transcontinental country, it only talks about the geography of the islands being African; the rest is SYNTH.|date=February 2019}} The island is very isolated, home to a high number of endemic species; up to a third of its plant life is endemic. It has been described as "the most alien-looking place on Earth."^[3] The island measures {{convert|132|km|mi}} in length and {{convert|49.7|km|mi}} in width.^[4] In 2008 Socotra was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[5]

Etymology

In the notes to his translation of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, G.W.B. Huntingford remarks that the name Suqotra is not Greek in origin, but from the Sanskrit {{lang|sa-Latn|dvīpa}} ("island") {{lang|sa-Latn|sukhadhara}} ("supporting, or providing bliss").^[3] (Note that the natives are saying that the origin of the Island's name came from the old Arabic words where the Island was described as (Souq Al Qatra = {Drop Market} and Drop meaning as in liquid drop) in the old trading road. "Source from the native's story"

History

There was initially an Oldowan lithic culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V.A. Zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Socotra appears as Dioskouridou ("of the Dioscuri"^[9]) in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century AD Greek navigation aid. A recent discovery of texts in several languages, including a wooden tablet in Palmyrene dated to the 3rd century AD, indicate the diverse origins of those who used Socotra as a trading base in antiquity.^[10]

In 2001 a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project investigated a cave on the island of Socotra. There, they came across a large number of inscriptions, drawings and archaeological objects.^[11]^[12] Further investigation showed that these had been left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. Most of the texts are written in the Indian Brāhmī script, but there are also inscriptions in South Arabian, Ethiopic, Greek, Palmyrene and Bactrian scripts and languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in that time period.^[13]

A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD 52. In the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. Socotra is also mentioned in The Travels of Marco Polo; Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island but recorded a report that "the inhabitants are baptised Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad." They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.^[14]

In 1507, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed at the then capital of Suq and captured the port after a stiff battle. Their objective was to set a base in a strategic place on the route to India, and to liberate the presumed friendly Christians from Islamic rule. Tomás Fernandes started to build a fortress at Suq, the Forte de São Miguel de Socotorá. The infertility of the land led to famine and sickness in the garrison, however. Moreover, the lack of a proper harbour for wintering led to the loss of many moored Portuguese ships, the most important of which was the Santo António galleon under the command of captain Manuel Pais da Veiga.^[15] Thus the Portuguese abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base.^[16]

The islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511, and its inhabitants were Islamized during their rule.^[17] In 1737, however, Captain de la Garde-Jazier, commander of a French naval expedition heading for Mocha, was surprised to find Christian tribes living in the interior of Socotra during a five-week stopover on the island. He reported in a letter home that the tribesmen, "due to lack of missionaries, had only retained a faint knowledge of Christianity."^[18]

In 1834, the East India Company, in the expectation that the Mahra sultan of Qishn and Socotra, who resided at Qishn on the mainland, would accept an offer to sell the island, stationed a garrison on Socotra. Faced with the unexpected firm refusal of the sultan to sell, however, as well as the lack of good anchorages for a coaling station to be used by the new steamship line being put into service on the Suez-Bombay route, the British left in 1835. After the capture of Aden in 1839, the British lost all interest in acquiring Socotra.

In January 1876, in exchange for a payment of 3,000 thalers and a yearly subsidy, the sultan pledged "himself, his heirs and successors, never to cede, to sell, to mortgage, or otherwise give for occupation, save to the British Government, the Island of Socotra or any of its dependencies." Additionally, he pledged to give assistance to any European vessel that wrecked on the island and protect the crew, the passengers and the cargo, in exchange for a suitable reward.^[19] In April 1886, the British government, concerned about reports that the German navy had been visiting various ports in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean for the purpose of securing a naval base, decided to conclude a protectorate treaty with the sultan in which he promised this time to "refrain from entering into any correspondence, agreement, or treaty with any foreign nation or power, except with the knowledge and sanction of the British Government", and give immediate notice to the British Resident at Aden of any attempt by another power to interfere with Socotra and its dependencies.^[20] Apart from those obligations, this preemptive protectorate treaty, designed above all to seal off Socotra from competing colonial powers, left the sultan in control of the island. In 1897, the P&O ship Aden sank after being wrecked on a reef near Socotra, with the loss of 78 lives. As some of the cargo had been plundered by islanders, the sultan was reminded of his obligations under the agreement of 1876.^[21]

In October 1967, in the wake of the departure of the British from Aden and southern Arabia, the Mahra Sultanate, as well as the other states of the former Aden Protectorate, were abolished. On 30 November of the same year, Socotra became part of South Yemen. The attitude of the South Yemeni government to the Soviet Union enabled the Soviet Navy to use the archipelago as a supply and supporting base for its operations in the Indian Ocean between 1971 and 1985.

In 2016 the United Arab Emirates increased supplies delivered to Socotra, which had been largely abandoned and forgotten during the ongoing conflict. In October 2016, the 31st cargo aircraft landed in Socotra Airport containing two tons of aid.^[22]^[23] At that time, the UAE also established a military base on the island as part of the Saudi-led intervention.^[22]

In 2017, some Yemeni political factions have accused the United Arab Emirates of looting, claiming that Emirati forces had ravaged the flora of the Island.^[24]

On January 29, 2018, the local Southern Transitional Council leadership on the archipelago declared their support for the STC during Hadi infighting in and around Aden.^[25]

On April 30, 2018, the United Arab Emirates, as part of the ongoing Saudi-led intervention in Yemen, landed troops on the island and took control of Socotra Airport and seaport.^[26]^[22] On May 14, 2018, Saudi troops were also deployed on the island and a deal was brokered between the United Arab Emirates and Yemen for a joint military training exercise and the return of administrative control of Socotra airport and seaport under Yemeni control.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Geography and climate

Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of continental origin (i.e. not of volcanic origin). The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana and detached during the Miocene epoch, in the same set of rifting events that opened the Gulf of Aden to its northwest.^[30]

The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra ({{convert|3665|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}), the three smaller islands of Abd al Kuri, Samhah and Darsa, as well as small rock outcrops like Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah that are uninhabitable by humans but important for seabirds.^[31]

The main island has three geographical terrains: the narrow coastal plains, a limestone plateau with karst topography and the Hajhir Mountains.^[32] The mountains rise to {{convert|1503|m|ft}}.^[33] The island is about {{convert|125|km|mi}} long and {{convert|45|km|mi}} north to south.^[34]

The climate of Socotra is classified in the Köppen climate classification as BWh and BSh, meaning a tropical, desert climate and semi-desert climate with a mean annual temperature over {{convert|25|°C|°F|disp=or}}. Yearly rainfall is light, but is fairly spread throughout the year. Due to orographic lift provided by the interior mountains, especially during the northeast monsoon from October to December, the highest inland areas can average as much as {{convert|800|mm|in|2}} per year and receive over {{convert|250|mm|in|2}} per month in November or December.^[35] The southwest monsoon season from July to September brings strong winds and high seas. For many centuries, the sailors of Gujarat called the maritime route near Socotra as “Sikotro Sinh”, meaning the lion of Socotra, that constantly roars—referring to the high seas near Socotra.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

In an extremely unusual occurrence, the western side of Socotra received more than {{convert|410|mm|in|2}} of rain from Cyclone Chapala in November 2015.^[36]

Flora and fauna

Socotra is considered the jewel of biodiversity in the Arabian Sea.^[38] In the 1990s, a team of United Nations biologists conducted a survey of the archipelago’s flora and fauna. They counted nearly 700 endemic species, found nowhere else on earth; only New Zealand,^[39] Hawaii, New Caledonia, and the Galápagos Islands have more impressive numbers.^[40]

The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the Centre for Middle Eastern Plants, part of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found nowhere else on Earth.^[41] The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the IUCN Red List, with 3 Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species recognised in 2004.^[41]

One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the dragon's blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a dye, and today used as paint and varnish.^[41] Also important in ancient times were Socotra's various endemic aloes, used medicinally, and for cosmetics. Other endemic plants include the giant succulent tree Dorstenia gigas, the cucumber tree Dendrosicyos socotranus, the rare Socotran pomegranate (Punica protopunica), Aloe perryi, and Boswellia socotrana.^[42]

The island group also has a rich fauna, including several endemic species of birds, such as the Socotra starling (Onychognathus frater), the Socotra sunbird (Nectarinia balfouri), Socotra bunting (Emberiza socotrana), Socotra cisticola (Cisticola haesitatus), Socotra sparrow (Passer insularis), Socotra golden-winged grosbeak (Rhynchostruthus socotranus), and a species in a monotypic genus, the Socotra warbler (Incana incana).^[42] Many of the bird species are endangered by predation by non-native feral cats.^[40] With only one endemic mammal, 6 endemic bird species and no amphibians, reptiles constitute the most relevant Socotran vertebrate fauna with 31 species. If one excludes the two recently introduced species, Hemidactylus robustus and Hemidactylus flaviviridis, all native species are endemic. There is a very high level of endemism at both species (29 of 31, 94%) and genus levels (5 of 12, 42%). At the species level, endemicity may be even higher, as phylogenetic studies have uncovered substantial hidden diversity.^[43] The reptiles species include skinks, legless lizards, and one species of chameleon, Chamaeleo monachus. There are many endemic invertebrates, including several spiders (such as the tarantula Monocentropus balfouri) and three species of freshwater crabs (one Socotra and two Socotrapotamon).^[44]

As with many isolated island systems, bats are the only mammals native to Socotra. In contrast, the coral reefs of Socotra are diverse, with many endemic species.^[42] Socotra is also one of the homes of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana.^[45]

Over the two thousand years of human settlement on the islands the environment has slowly but continuously changed, and according to Jonathan Kingdon, "the animals and plants that remain represent a degraded fraction of what once existed."^[42] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea says the island had crocodiles and large lizards, and the present reptilian fauna appears to be greatly reduced. Until a few centuries ago, there were rivers and wetlands on the island, greater stocks of the endemic trees, and abundant pasture. The Portuguese recorded the presence of water buffaloes in the early 17th century. Now there are only sand gullies, and many native plants only survive where there is greater moisture or protection from livestock.^[42] The remaining Socotra fauna is greatly threatened by goats and other introduced species.

The civil war in Yemen has caused deforestation in Socotra. In December 2018, UAE sent cooking gas to Socotra in order to curb deforestation caused by supply shortages caused by the civil war.^[46]

UNESCO recognition

The island was recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a world natural heritage site in July 2008. The European Union has supported such a move, calling on both UNESCO and International Organisation of Protecting Environment to classify the island archipelago among the environmental heritages.^[47]

Island of Poets

In addition to its unique natural heritage, Socotra is also a living bank of archaic linguistic vestiges that pre-date Arabic and include Arameic.

The Semitic language Soqotri, spoken originally only in Socotra by Al-Mahrah people, is related to such other Modern South Arabian languages on the Arabian mainland as Mehri, Harsusi, Bathari, Shehri, and Hobyot, that became the subject of European academic study in the 19th-century.^[48]^[49] There is an ancient tradition of poetry and a poetry competition is held annually on the island.^[50]

Demographics

Most of the inhabitants are indigenous Soqotri people from Al-Mahrah tribe, who are of Southern Arabian descent from Al Mahrah Governorate,^[51] and are said to be especially closely related with the Qara and Mahra groups of Southern Arabia.^[52] There are also a small number of residents of Somali origin.^[51] In addition, the island is inhabited by various black African people, who are believed to be descendants of runaway slaves.^[52]

Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering about 145,000, live on the main island of the archipelago.^[38] The principal city, Hadibu (with a population of 8,545 at the census of 2004); the second largest town, Qalansiyah (population 3,862); and Qād̨ub (population 929) are all located on the north coast of the island of Socotra.^[53] Only about 450 people live on 'Abd-al-Kūrī and 100 on Samha; the island of Darsa and the islets of the archipelago are uninhabited.^[54]

Religion

The islanders followed indigenous religions until 52 AD, when, according to local beliefs, Thomas the Apostle was shipwrecked there on his way to evangelize India.^[55] He then supposedly constructed a church out of his ship's wreckage and baptized many Socotrans.^[55] After this, Christianity became the main religion of the island.^[55] They followed Nestorius, the Archbishop of Constantinople, who was later excommunicated for heresies. The Socotrans remained loyal to his teachings and joined the Assyrian church.^[55] During the 10th century, Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani recorded during his visits that most of the islanders were Christian. Explorer Marco Polo wrote in his travelogue:

Christianity in Socotra went into decline when the Mahra sultanate took power in the 16th century and became mostly Muslim by the time the Portuguese arrived later that century.^[56] An 1884 edition of Nature, a science journal, writes that the disappearance of Christian churches and monuments can be accounted for by a Wahhabi excursion to the island in 1800.^[57] Today the only remnants of Christianity are some cross engravings from the 1st century AD, a few Christian tombs, and some church ruins.^[58]

Genetics

The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup J. Several of the female lineages on the island, notably those in mtDNA haplogroup N, are found nowhere else on Earth.^[59]

Administrative divisions

In 2013, however, the archipelago was removed from the Hadramaut Governorate and created a governorate (Socotra Governorate) in its own right, consisting of the two above-mentioned districts.{{cn|date=January 2019}}

Economy

The primary occupations of the people of Socotra have traditionally been fishing, animal husbandry, and the cultivation of dates.{{cn|date=January 2019}}

Monsoons long made the archipelago inaccessible from June to September each year. In July 1999, however, a new airport opened Socotra to the outside world all year round. There is regular service to and from Aden and Sana'a. All scheduled commercial flights make a technical stop at Riyan-Mukalla Airport. Socotra Airport is located about {{convert|12|km|abbr=off}} west of the main city, Hadibu, and close to the third largest town in the archipelago, Qād̨ub.^[60] Diesel generators make electricity widely available in Socotra. A paved road runs along the north shore from Qulansiyah to Hadibu and then to the DiHamri area; and another paved road, from the northern coast to the southern through the Dixsam Plateau.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

The former capital is located to the east of Hadibu. A small Yemeni Army barracks lie at the western end of Hadibu, and the former President of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, had a residence there.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} According to 2012 and 2014 sources analysed by the American Enterprise Institute's Critical Threats Project, a naval infantry brigade was stationed on Socotra at the time.^[61]

Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are dates, ghee, tobacco, and fish.{{cn|date=January 2019}}

At the end of the 1990s, a United Nations Development Program was launched with the aim of providing a close survey of the island of Socotra.^[62] The project called Socotra Governance and Biodiversity Project have listed following goals from 2009:

In February 2014, the Economist magazine reported that Socotra was being considered as a possible site for the Yemeni jihadist rehabilitation program.^[63]

Transport

Public transport on Socotra is limited to a few minibuses; car hire usually means hiring a 4WD car with driver.^[64]^[65]

Transport is a delicate matter on Socotra because, as much as modern transportation has its advantages, road construction has been considered detrimental to the island and its ecosystem. The most harm is being done by chemical pollution from road construction and road provoked habitat fragmentation.^[66]

The only port on Socotra is {{convert|5|km|abbr=off}} east of Hadibu. Ships connect the port with the Yemeni coastal city of Mukalla. According to information from the ports, the journey takes 2–3 days and the service is used mostly for cargo.{{cn|date=January 2019}}

However, during the deployment of Emirati troops and aid to the Island, multiple flight connections were made between Abu Dhabi and Hadibu as part of Emirati effort to provide Socotra residents with access to free healthcare and provide work opportunities.^[68]

Tourism

The airport for Socotra was established in 1999. Prior to this modest airport, the Island could only be reached by a cargo ship. The ideal time to visit Socotra is from October to April; the remaining months usually entertain heavy monsoon rainfall, making it difficult to survive the weather for tourists (flights also usually get cancelled).^[69] The Island lacks any well-established hotels, although there are a few guest houses for the travelers to stay during their short visits.^[70] Due to the Yemeni Civil War that started in 2015, the tourism to Socotra Island has been affected. The Island received over 1000 tourists each year until 2014.^[71]

Gallery

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.youth.cn/yculture/200911/t20091118_1085530.htm|work=en.youth.cn|publisher=China Youth International|title=Socotra islands scenery in Yemen|date=25 April 2008}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotra.cz/geography-13.html?lang=en|work=socotra.cz|publisher=Socotra Z.S. Society|title=Paradise Has an Address: Socotra - Geography|access-date=4 February 2019}}
3. ^¹{{Cite book |last=Huntingford |first=George Wynn Brereton |title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea |publisher=Hakluyt Society |year=1980 |page=103 |isbn=0-904180-05-0 }}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.darkroastedblend.com/2008/09/most-alien-looking-place-on-earth.html|date=4 September 2008|work=Dark Roasted Blend|title=The Most Alien-Looking Place on Earth|first=Avi|last=Abrams}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sabanews.net/en/news151852.htm|title= EU to protect Socotra archipelago environment|publisher=Yemen News Agency (SABA)|work=Saba Net|date=15 April 2008}}
6. ^{{cite journal| last=Amirkhanov|first=K.A. |last2=Zhukov|first2=V.A.|last3=Naumkin|first3=V.V.|last4=Sedov|first4=A.V.|script-title=ru:Эпоха олдована открыта на острове Сокотра|journal=Pripoda|issue=7|year=2009|language=Russian}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ihae.ru/konfer/simpozium.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009101750/http://www.ihae.ru/konfer/simpozium.htm|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2011-10-09|title=Международньій Симлозиум "Древнейшие Миграции Человека В Евразии" Махачкала, 6 – 12 сентября 2009 года|last=Davuov|first=O. M.|last2=Shunkov|first2=M. V.}}
8. ^Zhukov, Valery A. (2014) The Results of Research of the Stone Age Sites in the Island of Socotra (Yemen) in 2008-2012. - Moscow: Triada Ltd. 2014, pps 114, ill. 134 (in Russian){{ISBN|978-5-89282-591-7}}
9. ^{{cite book|author1=Great Britain. Naval Intelligence Division|title=Western Arabia and the Red Sea|date=2005|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Hoboken|isbn=9781136209956|page=611|ref=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXfYAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA611&vq=socotra%20dioscuri&dq=socotra%20dioscuri&pg=PA611#v=snippet&q=socotra%20dioscuri&f=false|chapter=Appendix: Socotra}}
10. ^{{Cite book |last=Sidebotham |first=Steven E. |title=Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route |publisher=California |year=2011 |page=189 |isbn=978-0-520-24430-6}}
11. ^{{cite journal|language=French|title=La grotte sanctuaire de Suqutra|url=http://www.archeologia-magazine.com/numero-396/l-alimentation-cyclades.1623.php|journal= Archéologia|issue=396|date=January 2003}}
12. ^{{cite journal|language=French|last=Robin|first=C. |last2= Gorea|first2= M. |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/crai_0065-0536_2002_num_146_2_22441 |title=Les vestiges antiques de la grotte de Hôq (Suqutra, Yémen) (note d'information)|journal= Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|volume= 146|issue= 2|year=2002|pages=409–445|doi=10.3406/crai.2002.22441}}
13. ^{{cite book|title=Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq|year=2012|publisher=Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag|location=Bremen|isbn=978-3-934106-91-8|page=592|first=Mikhail D.|last= Bukharin|first2= Peter |last2=De Geest|first3= Hédi |last3=Dridi|first4= Maria|last4= Gorea|first5= Julian|last5= Jansen Van Rensburg|first6=Christian Julien|last6= Robin|first7= Bharati |last7=Shelat|first8=Nicholas|last8= Sims-Williams|first9=Ingo |last9=Strauch|editor-last=Strauch|editor-first= Ingo}}
14. ^{{cite book|last=Polo|first=Marco|title=The Travels of Marco Polo|others=Translated and introduction by Ronald Latham|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1958|pages=296–297|isbn=0-14-044057-7}}
15. ^{{cite journal|last=Monteiro|first= Alexandre|title=Uma página dos Descobrimentos: a ilha de Socotorá no século XVI|language=Portuguese|journal= National Geographic Portugal|date=June 2012|pages= 42–45}}
16. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1 |title=Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580|first=Bailey Wallys|last=Diffie|first2=George Davison |last2=Winius|page=233|year=1977|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=0-8166-0782-6}}
17. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c788wWR_bLwC&pg=PA753&lpg=PA753 |title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World|first=Glen Warren|last=Bowersock|first2=Peter |last2=Brown|first3=Oleg |last3=Grabar|page=753|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674511735}}
18. ^The goal of the 4-ship expedition, which sailed from Pondicherry (French India), was to force the ruler of Mocha to stop harassing French traders and abide by the provisions of a treaty of commerce signed with France 25 years earlier. While at Socotra, the troops practiced landing on beaches with their crafts. Henri Labrousse, Récits de la mer Rouge et de l'océan Indien, Economica, Paris, 1992, p.74.
19. ^A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sunnuds related to India and Neighbouring Countries, Calcutta, 1876, volume VII, page 191-192.
20. ^A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sunnuds related to India and Neighbouring Countries, Calcutta, 1909, volume VIII, page 185.
21. ^A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sunnuds related to India and Neighbouring Countries, Calcutta, 1909, volume VIII, page 72.
22. ^¹²{{cite news|title=Socotra: How a strategic island became part of a Gulf power struggle|url=https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Socotra-How-a-strategic-island-became-part-of-a-Gulf-power-struggle-553599|accessdate=8 May 2018|work=The Jerusalem Post|date=6 May 2018}}
23. ^{{cite news|title=UAE offers a helping hand to the island of Socotra|url=https://www.thenational.ae/opinion/uae-offers-a-helping-hand-to-the-island-of-socotra-1.6185|accessdate=8 May 2018|work=The National|language=en}}
24. ^{{citation |last=Forster |first=Robert |title=The Southern Transitional Council: Implications for Yemen's Peace Process |publisher=Middle East Policy 24.3 |year=2017 |pages=133–144}}
25. ^{{cite web |author= |url=http://stcaden.com/news/8231 |title=the Southern Transitional Council's branch in Socotra declared their support for the STC in Aden on January 29th, 2018, according to a Southern Transitional Council statement |publisher=Stcaden.com |date= |accessdate=2018-05-07}}
26. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/yemen-officials-say-emiratis-boost-forces-on-socotra-island/2018/05/02/84efa860-4e27-11e8-85c1-9326c4511033_story.html|title=Yemen officials say Emiratis boost forces on Socotra island|website=The Washington Post}}
27. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/yemen-pm-crisis-uae-deployment-socotra-180514155240735.html|title=Yemen PM: Crisis over UAE deployment to Socotra over|website=Al Jazeera}}
28. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.albawaba.com/news/yemen-uae-agree-deal-over-socotra-1131236|title=Yemen, UAE Agree on Deal Over Socotra|website=Albawaba News}}
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.presstv.com/Detail/2018/05/14/561645/Saudi-troops-Yemen-Socotra-UAE|title=Saudi Arabia deploys troops to Yemen’s Socotra after UAE’s military build-up|website=Press TV}}
30. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.aemnp.eu/PDF/52_s2/52_S2_1.pdf|title=Socotra Archipelago – a lifeboat in the sea of changes: advancement in Socotran insect biodiversity survey|journal=Acta Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae|format=PDF|volume=52|issue=supplementum 2|pages=1–26}}
31. ^{{cite journal |last1=Shobrak |first1=Mohammed |last2=Alsuhaibany |first2=Abdullah |last3=Al-Sagheir |first3=Omer |others=Photographs by Abdullah Alsuhaibany |date=November 2003 |title=Status of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden |work=PERSGA Technical Series |issue=8 |publisher=Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) |location=Jeddah, Saudi Arabia |format=PDF |language=English, Arabic |url=http://www.persga.org/Files//Publications/Technical/TS/TS8_Status_of_Breeding_Seabirds.pdf}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm|title = Socotra Fauna and Flora}}
33. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11317 |title= Socotra High Point, Yemen |publisher= Peakbagger.com |accessdate =8 October 2011}}
34. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm |title= Natural History |publisher= DBT Socotra Adventure Tour |accessdate =8 October 2011}}
35. ^Scholte, Paul, and, De Geest, Peter; ‘The climate of Socotra Island (Yemen): A first-time assessment of the timing of the monsoon wind reversal and its influence on precipitation and vegetation patterns’; Journal of Arid Environments, vol. 74, issue 11 (November 2010); pp. 1507-1515
36. ^{{cite news |title= The mediocre model forecasts of Cyclone Chapala’s rainfall over Yemen |first= Angela |last= Fritz |date= 5 November 2015 |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2015/11/05/the-mediocre-model-forecasts-of-cyclone-chapalas-rainfall-over-yemen/ }}
37. ^{{cite web| url = https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_414940_kt.pdf| title = Klimatafel von Sokotra (Suqutrá), Insel / Arabisches Meer / Jemen| work = Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst| language = German| accessdate = 26 April 2018}}
38. ^¹[https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL23671476 FACTBOX-Socotra, jewel of biodiversity in Arabian Sea]. Reuters, 2008-04-23
39. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/native-plants-and-animals-overview/page-1|title=1 – Native plants and animals – overview – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|website=www.teara.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2017-06-09}}
40. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/03/25/travel/tmagazine/03well.socotra.t.html|title=The Wonder Land of Socotra|last=Burdick|first=Alan|date=25 March 2007|work=T Magazine|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=9 November 2009|location=New York}}
41. ^¹²{{cite book|last=Miller|first=A.G. |last2= Morris|first2=M.|year=2004|title=Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago|publisher=Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh}}
42. ^¹²³⁴{{Cite book| last = Kingdon | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Kingdon | title = Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa's Rare Plants and Animals | location = Princeton, New Jersey | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6_VqQgAACAAJ |publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1989 | pages = 38–42 | isbn = 0-691-08560-9}}
43. ^Vasconcelos R, Montero-Mendieta S, Simó-Riudalbas M, Sindaco R, Santos X, et al. (2016) Unexpectedly High Levels of Cryptic Diversity Uncovered by a Complete DNA Barcoding of Reptiles of the Socotra Archipelago. PLOS ONE 11(3): e0149985. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149985
44. ^Apel, M. and Brandis, D. 2000. A new species of freshwater crab (Crustacea: Brachyura: Potamidae) from Socotra Island and description of Socotrapotamon n. gen. Fauna of Arabia 18: 133-144.
45. ^Bicyclus, Site of Markku Savela
46. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/uae-organisation-delivers-cooking-gas-to-socotra-residents-to-prevent-deforestation-1.798190|title= UAE organisation delivers cooking gas to Socotra residents to prevent deforestation|publisher=The National|date=2 December 2018}}
47. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sabanews.net/en/news151852.htm|title= EU to protect Socotra archipelago environment|publisher=Yemen News Agency (SABA)|work=Saba Net|date=15 April 2008}}
48. ^{{cite web|author=Mansur Mirovalev|title=Russian Roots and Yemen's Socotra Language|publisher=Al-Jazeera|date=2015|url= https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/03/russian-roots-yemen-socotra-language-150308083716499.html|access-date=9 March 2019}}
49. ^{{cite web|author=Rupert Hawksley|title= How the Yemeni island of Sokotra is forging its own future|date=5 January 2019|publisher=The National: Arts and Culture|url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/books/how-the-yemeni-island-of-socotra-is-forging-its-own-future-1.809600|access-date=9 March 2019}}
50. ^{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=Miranda J.|date=2013-01-01|title=The use of 'veiled language' in Soqoṭri poetry|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=43|pages=239–244|jstor=43782882}}
51. ^¹²{{cite book|first=Georg|last= Schurhammer|title=Francis Xavier; His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1544|volume= 2|publisher=Jesuit Historical Institute|year=1982|page=122}}
52. ^¹{{cite journal |editor-first=Norman |editor-last=Lockyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA575 |journal=Nature |volume=29 |year=1884 |pages=575–576 |title=Socotra |doi= 10.1038/029575b0 |issue=755}}
53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cso-yemen.org/content.php?lng=english&id=293|work=The General Population Housing and Establishment Census2004|title= Final Census Results2004: The General Frame of the Population Final Results (First Report)|publisher=Central Statistical Organisation|date=6 January 2007|accessdate=6 July 2013}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraproject.org/index.php?page=content&id=7|title=Default Page|website=www.socotraproject.org}}
55. ^¹²³{{cite web|title = Socotra history :: Socotra Eco-Tours|url = http://www.socotra-eco-tours.com/products/socotra-history/|website = www.socotra-eco-tours.com|accessdate = 2015-09-02}}
56. ^¹{{cite web|title = The history of Socotra|url = http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_History.htm|website = www.socotraislandadventure.com|accessdate = 2015-09-02}}
57. ^{{Cite book|title = Nature|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qVEEAAAAYAAJ|publisher = Nature Publishing Group|date = 1884-01-01|first = Sir Norman|last = Lockyer}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotra-eco-tours.com/products/socotra-history/|title=Socotra history :: Socotra Eco-Tours|website=www.socotra-eco-tours.com}}
59. ^{{cite journal|last1=Černý|first1=Viktor|last2=Pereira|first2=Luísa|last3=Kujanová|first3=Martina|last4=Vašíková|first4=Alžběta|last5=Hájek|first5=Martin|last6=Morris|first6=Miranda|last7=Mulligan|first7=Connie J.|title=Out of Arabia—The settlement of Island Soqotra as revealed by mitochondrial and Y chromosome genetic diversity|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=April 2009|volume=138|issue=4|pages=439–47|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20960|pmid=19012329|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Connie_Mulligan/publication/23476615_Out_of_Arabia-The_settlement_of_Island_Soqotra_as_revealed_by_mitochondrial_and_Y_chromosome_genetic_diversity/links/5653185908aefe619b18f505.pdf}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://adds.aviationweather.gov/metars/stations.txt|title=aviationweather.gov|publisher=}}
61. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/yemen-order-of-battle#_edn33048fe4c71020785634634c1c1b906539 |title=Yemen Order Of Battle |publisher=Critical Threats |date=2015-02-23 |accessdate=2018-05-07}}
62. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraproject.org/index.php?page=content&id=32|title=Default Page|website=www.socotraproject.org}}
63. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21595506-could-guant-namos-biggest-bunch-prisoners-be-sent-socotra-island |title= Could Guantánamo’s biggest bunch of prisoners be sent to Socotra? |publisher= Economist magazine |date= 2014-02-01 |location= Hadibu, Socotra |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140131022349/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21595506-could-guant-namos-biggest-bunch-prisoners-be-sent-socotra-island |archivedate= 2014-01-31 |accessdate= 2014-02-03 |deadurl= No |quote= In November a Yemeni newspaper, el-Ule, ran a story about a “new Guantánamo” to be set up on Socotra; a cartoon mixed the island’s dragon-blood tree (pictured above) with the Guantánamo inmates’ orange uniform.}}
64. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraproject.org/index.php?page=content&id=22|title=Default Page|website=www.socotraproject.org}}
65. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1998879,00.html|title= Socotra: The Other Galápagos Awaits Tourists|first=Oliver|last=Holmes|date=23 June 2010|journal=Time|accessdate=6 July 2013}}
66. ^{{cite web|last1=Lisa|first1=Banfield|title=Past and present human impacts on the biodiversity of Socotra Island - Paper|url=http://www.friendsofsoqotra.org/Bibliography/pdfs/Van%20Damme%20&%20Banfield%202011%20Socotra%20Conservation.pdf|website=www.friendsofsoqotra.org}}
67. ^{{cite news|last1=Ghattas|first1=Abir|title=Yemen's No Fly Zone: Thousands of Yemenis are Stranded Abroad|url=https://globalvoicesonline.org/2015/03/31/yemens-no-fly-zone-thousands-of-yemenis-are-stranded-abroad/#|accessdate=8 April 2015}}
68. ^{{cite news|title=Socotra island: The Unesco-protected 'Jewel of Arabia' vanishing amid Yemen’s civil war|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/socotra-island-yemen-civil-war-uae-military-base-unesco-protected-indian-ocean-a8331946.html|work=The Independent|date=2 May 2018}}
69. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/25/travel/tmagazine/03well.socotra.t.html|title=The Wonder Land of Socotra, Yemen|last=Burdick|first=Alan|access-date=2018-07-17|language=en}}
70. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.incarabia.com/launch/tourism-in-the-time-of-conflict-yemeni-island-of-socotra-is-open-to-travelers/|title=Tourism In The Time Of Conflict: Yemeni Island Of Socotra Is Open To Travelers {{!}} Inc. Arabia|last=Kedem|first=Shoshana|website=Inc. Arabia|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-17}}
71. ^{{Cite news|url=https://adventuresoflilnicki.com/can-you-still-go-to-socotra/|title=Wanna go to Socotra? Good luck at the moment|date=2017-07-06|work=The Adventures of Lil Nicki|access-date=2018-07-17|language=en-US}}