| 词条 | Southern Cone | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
| above = Southern Cone | image ={{legend|#228B22|Regions included in all forms}}{{legend|#00FF00|Regions generally included}}{{legend|#98FB98|Countries that still have a small part of their territory in the Southern Cone}} | label1 = Area | data1 = {{convert|5,712,034 |km|}} | label2 = Population | data2 = 135,707,204 (July 2010 est.) | label3 = Density | data3 = {{convert|27.45|/km2|abbr=on}}[1] | label4 = Countries | data4 = 3, 4, or 5 | label5 = Languages | data5 = Spanish, Portuguese and Guarani | label6 = Demonym | data6 = South American | label9 = Largest urban agglomerations | data9 = 1. {{flagicon|BRA}} São Paulo 2. {{flagicon|ARG}} Buenos Aires 3. {{flagicon|CHI}} Santiago 4. {{flagicon|BRA}} Curitiba 5. {{flagicon|BRA}} Porto Alegre 6. {{flagicon|ARG}} Córdoba 7. {{flagicon|URU}} Montevideo }} The Southern Cone ({{lang-es|Cono Sur}}, {{lang-pt|Cone Sul}}) is a geographic and cultural region composed of the southernmost areas of South America, south of and around the Tropic of Capricorn. Traditionally, it covers Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the south by the junction between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, which is the continental area closest to Antarctica (separated by 960 km). In terms of social, economic and political geography, the Southern Cone comprises Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and the Southern and Southeastern of Brazil. In its broadest definition, the Southern Cone also includes southern Bolivia (the most developed area of the country) and Paraguay (because of the common history and geography).[2] High life expectancy, the highest Human Development Index of Latin America, high standard of living, low fertility rates, significant participation in the global markets and the emerging economy{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} of its members make the Southern Cone the most prosperous macro-region in Latin America.[2][3] Geography and extentThe climates are mostly temperate, but include humid subtropical, Mediterranean, highland tropical, maritime temperate, sub-Antarctic temperate, highland cold, desert and semi-arid temperate regions. Except for northern regions of Argentina (thermal equator in January), the whole country of Paraguay, the Argentina-Brazil border and the interior of the Atacama desert, the region rarely suffers from heat. In addition to that, the winter presents mostly cool temperatures. Strong and constant wind and high humidity is what brings low temperatures in the winter. The Atacama is the driest place on Earth. One of the most peculiar plants of the region is the Araucaria tree, which can be found in Brazil, Chile and Argentina. The only native group of conifers found in the southern hemisphere had its origin in the Southern Cone. Araucaria angustifolia, once widespread in Southern Brazil, is now a critically endangered species, protected by law. The prairies region of central Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil is known as the Pampas. Central Chile has Mediterranean vegetation and climate, grading southward into oceanic climate. The Atacama, Patagonian and Monte deserts form a diagonal of arid lands separating the woodlands, croplands and pastures of La Plata basin from Central and Southern Chile. Apart from the desert diagonal, the north-south running Andes form a major divide in the Southern Cone and constitute, for most of its part in the southern cone, the Argentina–Chile border. In the east the river systems of the La Plata basin form natural barriers and sea-lanes between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.
CultureBesides sharing languages and colonial heritage, the residents of the states of the Southern Cone are avid players and fans of football, with top-notch teams competing in the sport. Argentina and Uruguay have both won the FIFA World Cup twice; they are the only national teams along with Brazil outside Europe to have won the cup. Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and Brazil have all hosted the World Cup. Additionally, national teams from the region have won several Olympic medals in football. Also, football clubs from the Southern Cone countries have won large numbers of club competitions in South-American competitions, Pan-American competitions, and world-FIFA Club World Cup-level competitions. The asado barbecue is a culinary tradition typical of the Southern Cone. The asado developed from the horsemen and cattle culture of the region, more specifically from the gauchos of Argentina, Uruguay and Southern Brazil (and Southern Chile) and the huasos of Chile. In the Southern Cone, horsemen are considered icons of national identity; they are featured in the epic poem Martín Fierro. Mate is popular throughout the Southern Cone. In this area, there was extensive European immigration during the 19th- and 20th-centuries, who, with their descendants, have strongly influenced the culture, social life and politics of these countries. In a social survey, residents rated their countries as 'good places for gay or lesbian people to live;' the following percentages said 'yes' in Uruguay (69%), Argentina (58%) and Chile (52%). By contrast, fewer people in the following countries agreed: Bolivia (24%), Ecuador (31%) and Peru (32%).[6] LanguageThe overwhelming majority, including those of recent immigrant background, speak Spanish (in Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) or Portuguese in the case of Southern Brazil. The Spanish-speaking countries of the Southern Cone are divided into two main dialects:
These dialects share common traits, such as a number of Lunfardo and Quechua words. Other minor languages and dialects include Portuñol, a hybrid between Rioplatense and Brazilian Portuguese that is spoken in Uruguay on the border with Brazil. Native American languagesSome Native American groups, especially in rural areas, continue to speak autochthonous languages, including Mapudungun (also known as Mapuche), Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani. The first is primarily spoken in Araucanía and adjacent areas of Patagonia, in southern Argentina and Chile. Guarani is an official language of Paraguay, the most widely spoken language in that country, and in 2010, the city of Tacuru, in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul, adopted Guarani as the official language, besides Portuguese. It is also a co-official language in the northeastern Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Misiones.[9] Non-Iberian immigrant languagesEnglish is spoken in the Falkland Islands, a British Overseas Territory, and by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. Welsh is spoken by descendants of immigrants in the Patagonia region of Argentina. Italian (mostly its Northern dialects, such as Venetian), is spoken in rural communities across Argentina and São Paulo where immigrants had settled. German in some dialects is mostly spoken in Southern Chile and Southern Brazil. German dialects are the second most spoken mother tongue in Brazil.[10][11][12]Polish, Dutch and Ukrainian are also spoken in Southern Brazil. Dutch is spoken in Chile as well, Ukrainian is used in Argentina as well. Croatian and other Slavic languages are also spoken in the southernmost areas of Chilean Patagonia, reflecting patterns of immigration and settlement. Yiddish can be heard mainly in Buenos Aires, Argentina and São Paulo, Brazil. In Brazil, Japanese is mostly common in the states of São Paulo and Paraná. ReligionThe majority of residents are Roman Catholic, but there are Jewish and Protestants as well (mostly in Argentina and Chile). Religions include Islam, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Buddhism, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Daoism. Jewish communities have thrived in cities of Argentina and Uruguay. While the Southern Cone has been conservative in some aspects of religion, it has had a tradition of social reform and "liberation theology" has been followed by many in the Catholic Church. Uruguay, where agnosticism and atheism is common, has a policy of strong separation of church and state; it is one of the most secular countries in the Americas.[13] Uruguay, Argentina and Chile, in that order, have the least religious residents in South America, according to their responses about the significance of religion in their lives. According to a Gallup poll, 51% of Uruguayans, 56% of Argentines, and 60% of Chileans think of religion 'as something important in their lives,' contrasting with the higher values given by the residents of countries such as Brazil (87%), Bolivia (89%) and Paraguay (92%). Countries and territories{{Expand section|date=May 2009}}
Inclusion of other countriesBrazilBrazil being a country of continental dimensions, it presents great internal regional differences. While its 4 southernmost states (Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná and São Paulo) share the same characteristics with Argentina, Chile and Uruguay: high standard of living, subtropical and temperate climate, high levels of industrialization and strong European ethnic component due to immigration, the other states are more similar to the other South American countries in these issues. For this reason, Brazil is included in some meanings when speaking in Southern Cone, but excluded in others. When the definition is not limited to entire countries, the states of the South Region and the state of São Paulo are generally included.
ParaguayDue to the geographical proximity, common history, geography and political cycles, Paraguay is usually included in what is meant by Southern Cone. However, it contrasts strongly with other countries given the high level of poverty, low standard of living and low level of industrialization, and is therefore sometimes excluded from the definition. Demography{{Main article|Demographics of the Southern Cone}}The population of Argentina, Chile and Uruguay is 40, 16.8 and 3.6 million respectively. Buenos Aires is the largest metropolitan area at 13.1 million and Santiago, Chile has 6.4 million. Uruguay's capital and largest city, Montevideo, has 1.8 million, and it receives many visitors on ferry boats across the Río de la Plata from Buenos Aires, {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} away. EthnicityThe population of the Southern Cone has been strongly influenced by waves of immigration from Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. People of European descent, make up 79% of the total population of Argentina, 88% of total population of Uruguay and 53% of total population of Chile.[18][19][20][21] Mestizos make up 15.8% of the population and are a majority in Paraguay. Native Americans make up 3% of the population, mulattoes (people of European and African ancestry) mostly in Uruguay (0.2%), and Asians (1.0%), mostly in Argentina, the remaining 1.2%.[22] Genetic and historical rootsSince interethnic marriages are widespread in Latin America, complex ethnic classifications emerged, including more than a dozen of "racial" categories created in 18th century Hispanic America, with notorious examples being castizo, morisco and cambujo. In Brazil, about 190 "racial" categories were detected by the Census of 1976.[23] Blacks made up 25% of the population of Buenos Aires in 1810, 1822 and 1838. In 1887, the government decided to cease asking Argentine citizens about their race. According to Laura López, it was a way to "hide" the Black population, not only from the Census, but also from the public opinion.[24] [25] Chile does not ask its citizens about race, but a study from the University of Chile concluded that Whites make 60% of the Chilean population,[26] while the CIA World Factbook described 88.4% of the population as white and mestizo.[27] A study conducted on 218 individuals in 2010 by the Argentine geneticist Daniel Corach, has established that the genetic map of Argentina is composed by 79% from different European ethnicities (mainly Spanish and Italian ethnicities), 18% of different indigenous ethnicities, and 4.3% of African ethnic groups, in which 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor who was Indigenous.[28][29] An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found the composition of the Argentine population to be 78,50% European, 17,30% Native American, and 4,20% Sub-Saharan African (SSA).[30] A DNA study from 2009, published in the American Journal of Human Biology, showed the genetical composition of Uruguay to be mainly European, but with Native American (which varies from 1% to 20% in different parts of the country) and also SSA (7% to 15% in different parts of the country).[31] An autosomal DNA study from 2014 found out Chile to be 44.34% (± 3.9%) Native American, 51.85% (± 5.44%) European and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African.[32][33] In the case of Chile,"The use of mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome" test results show the following: The European component is predominant (91.0%, versus 9.0% of the aboriginal one) in the Chilean upper class,[34] the middle classes, 66.8%-62.3% European component[34][35] and 37.7%-33.2 of mixed aboriginal[34][36] and lower classes at 55%-52.9% European component[34][35] and 47.1%-45% mix of Aboriginal.[34][35] Similar to the rest of Latin America, the genetic ancestry of the population of the Southern Cone reflects the history of the continent: the Iberian colonizers were mostly men who arrived without women. In consequence, they had children with the local Indigenous or enslaved African women. A European immigration to this part of the World in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (massive in Argentina, Uruguay, Southern Chile, and south and southeastern Brazil, modest in elsewhere in Brazil, Central Chile and Paraguay)[19][37] [38] brought more European and northern Middle Eastern components to the local population – mainly Spaniards in Chile, Italians and Spaniards in Argentina and Uruguay, Italians in São Paulo, Italians, Germans and Poles in southern Brazil.[39] European immigration was encouraged by local governments, among other reasons, to "whiten" the local population, which reflected the scientific racism that considered the Amerindian and African elements "inferior", while the European element was seen as "superior".[40] As a consequence, the White phenotype came to dominate these areas that received larger numbers of European immigrants. But the predominantly non-white majority before the mass European immigration did not disappear, of course, but was largely assimilated into the white population. Education and standards of livingThe other conspicuous characteristic of the Southern Cone is its relatively high standard of living and quality of life. Argentina's, Chile's, and Uruguay's HDIs—(0.827), (0.847), and (0.804)—are the highest in Latin America, similar to those of the richest countries in Eastern Europe, such as Slovenia, Poland or Hungary.[41] Uruguay, where illiteracy technically does not exist, reaches the same level in this area, even considering that it faces restrictions to its industrial and economic growth. The Southern Cone is the most prosperous macro-region in Latin America. It has high life expectancy, access to health care and education.[42] From an economic and liberal point of view the region has been praised for its significant participation in the global markets, and its "emerging economy" profile.[42] More troubling are high levels of income inequality.[43]
Southern Cone = {{ARG}} {{CHI}} {{URU}} Mexico = {{MEX}} Brazil = {{BRA}} South America = {{COL}} {{VEN}} {{PAR}} {{ECU}} {{PER}} {{BOL}} Central America = {{CRC}} {{PAN}} {{NIC}} {{HON}} {{SLV}} {{GUA}} Politics{{See also|Politics of Argentina|Politics of Chile|Politics of Uruguay}}During the second half of 20th century, these countries were in some periods ruled by right-wing juntas, military nationalistic dictatorships. Around the 1970s, these regimes collaborated in Plan Cóndor against leftist opposition, including urban guerrillas.[51] However, by the early 1980s Argentina and Uruguay restored their democracies; Chile followed suit in 1990. GovernmentsTimeline of presidentsImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = left:100 bottom:60 top:0 right:10 Alignbars = justify DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/01/1950 till:26/01/2019 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Colors = id:peronist value:blue legend:Peronist id:colo value:orange legend:Colorado id:frenteamplio value:green legend:Frente_Amplio id:radical value:teal legend:Radical id:dictatorship value:black legend:Dictator id:socialist value:red legend:Socialist id:PDC value:purple legend:Christian_Democrat Legend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1950 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1951 BarData = bar:arg text:"Argentina" bar:chi text:"Chile" bar:uru text:"Uruguay" PlotData= width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:arg from:01/01/1950 till:16/09/1955 color:peronist bar:arg from:16/09/1955 till:01/05/1958 color:dictatorship bar:arg from:01/05/1958 till:28/06/1966 color:radical bar:arg from:28/06/1966 till:25/05/1973 color:dictatorship bar:arg from:25/05/1973 till:24/03/1976 color:peronist bar:arg from:24/03/1976 till:10/12/1983 color:dictatorship bar:arg from:10/12/1983 till:08/07/1989 color:radical bar:arg from:08/07/1989 till:10/12/1999 color:peronist bar:arg from:10/12/1999 till:23/12/2001 color:radical bar:arg from:23/12/2001 till:10/12/2015 color:peronist bar:chi from:03/11/1964 till:03/11/1970 color:PDC bar:chi from:04/11/1970 till:11/09/1973 color:socialist bar:chi from:11/09/1973 till:11/03/1990 color:dictatorship bar:chi from:11/03/1990 till:11/03/2000 color:PDC bar:chi from:11/03/2000 till:11/03/2010 color:socialist bar:chi from:11/03/2014 till:11/03/2018 color:socialist bar:uru from:01/01/1950 till:01/03/1951 color:colo bar:uru from:01/03/1967 till:27/06/1973 color:colo bar:uru from:27/06/1973 till:01/03/1985 color:dictatorship bar:uru from:01/03/1985 till:01/03/1990 color:colo bar:uru from:01/03/1995 till:01/03/2005 color:colo bar:uru from:01/03/2005 till:26/01/2019 color:frenteamplio References1. ^This North American density figure is based on a total land area of 4,944,081sq km 2. ^1 {{cite book | last = Steven | first = F. | authorlink = | title = Regional Integration and Democratic Consolidation in the Southern Cone of Latin America | journal = Democratization | volume = 14 | pages = 75–100 | publisher = Routledge | location = | year = 2001 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=npOUfgC8qkMC&pg=PA3 | isbn = 978-950-738-053-2 | accessdate = 12 May 2009}} 3. ^{{cite book |editor-last=Krech III |editor-first=Shepard |editor2-last=Merchant |editor2-first=Carolyn |editor3-last=McNeill |editor3-first=John Robert |title=Encyclopedia of World Environmental History |volume=3: O–Z, Index |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-93735-1 |pages=1142– |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Dmky95hwKr0C |page=1142 }} }} 4. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.smn.gov.ar/?mod=clima&id=5 |title=Servicio Meteorológico Nacional|website=smn.gov.ar}} 5. ^{{cite web|url=http://164.77.222.61/climatologia/|title=Climatología|first=Luis|last=Lazcano|website=164.77.222.61|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916180838/http://164.77.222.61/climatologia/|archive-date=2016-09-16|dead-url=yes|df=}} 6. ^[https://worldview.gallup.com/default.aspx WorldView] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019123605/https://worldview.gallup.com/default.aspx |date=October 19, 2013 }}, Gallup 7. ^{{cite journal |title=Convergence and intonation: historical evidence from Argentine Spanish|date=August 2004 |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |volume=7|issue=2|pages=107–119|doi=10.1017/S1366728904001488|last1=Colantoni|first1=Laura|last2=Gurlekian|first2=Jorge}} 8. ^{{cite journal|title=Convergence and intonation: historical evidence from Buenos Aires Spanish|first1=Laura|last1=Colantoni|first2=Jorge|last2=Gurlekian|journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition|volume=7|issue=2|pages=107–119|doi=10.1017/S1366728904001488|year=2004}} 9. ^"Official languages include indigenous" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220132046/http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36670 |date=2012-02-20 }}, IPS News 10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hrx|title=Hunsrückish|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=20 July 2015}} 11. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/BR|title=Standard German|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=20 July 2015}} 12. ^{{cite web|url=http://graduate.olivet.edu/news-events/news/second-most-spoken-languages-around-world|title=Olivet Second Most Spoken Languages Around the World|publisher=olivet.edu|accessdate=29 March 2016}} 13. ^Latin American Area Studies: Uruguay {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714153604/http://www.morris.umn.edu/academic/laas/Uruguay.html |date=2010-07-14 }}, University of Minnesota 14. ^1 2 Land areas and population estimates are taken from The 2008 World Factbook which currently uses July 2008 data, unless otherwise noted. 15. ^{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }} 16. ^Land areas and population estimates are taken from The 2008 World Factbook which currently uses July 2008 data, unless otherwise noted. 17. ^{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }} 18. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LcabJ98-t1wC&pg=PA93 |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI|isbn=978-970-757-052-8|language=Spanish|author1=Fernández, Francisco Lizcano|year=2007}} 19. ^1 SOCIAL IDENTITY Marta Fierro Social 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Acuña1, H. Jorquera, L. Cifuentes, and L. 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