“Spin group”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

As a Lie group, Spin(n) therefore shares its dimension, {{nowrap|n(n − 1)/2}}, and its Lie algebra with the special orthogonal group.

For {{nowrap|n > 2}}, Spin(n) is simply connected and so coincides with the universal cover of SO(n).

The non-trivial element of the kernel is denoted −1, which should not be confused with the orthogonal transform of reflection through the origin, generally denoted −I .

Spin(n) can be constructed as a subgroup of the invertible elements in the Clifford algebra Cl(n). A distinct article discusses the spin representations.

Construction

Construction of the Spin group often starts with the construction of the Clifford algebra over a real vector space V.^[3] The Clifford algebra is the quotient of the tensor algebra TV of V by a two-sided ideal. The tensor algebra (over the reals) may be written as

where

is the norm of a vector

. The resulting space is naturally graded, and can be written as

where the last is a short-hand for V being a real vector space of real dimension n. It is a Lie algebra; it has a natural action on V, and in this way can be shown to be isomorphic to the Lie algebra

of the special orthogonal group.

where each

is of unit length:

Note that many authors drop the use of the tensor symbol

, making it implicit, as its overuse can become quite tedious. Here, however, it is shown explicitly, to keep the construction clear.

is the subspace of an even number of products. That is, Spin(V) consists of all elements of Pin(V), given above, with the restriction to k being an even number. The restriction to the even subspace is key to the formation of two-component (Weyl) spinors, constructed below.

Note, incidentally, that if the set

are an orthonormal basis of the (real) vector space V, then the quotient above endows the space with a natural anti-commuting structure:

. This anti-commutation turns out to be of tremendous importance in physics, as it captures the spirit of the Pauli exclusion principle for fermions. A precise formulation is out of scope, here, but it involves the creation of a spinor bundle on Minkowski spacetime; the resulting spinor fields can be seen to be anti-commuting as a by-product of the Clifford algebra construction. This anti-commutation property is also a key ingredient for the formulation of supersymmetry. The Clifford algebra and the spin group have many interesting and curious properties, some of which are listed below.

Double covering

A double covering of SO(n) by Spin(n) can be given explicitly, as follows. Let

be an orthonormal basis for V. Define an anti-automorphism

where

. The above gives a double covering of both O(n) by Pin(n) and of SO(n) by Spin(n) because

gives the same transformation as

. With a small amount of work, it can be seen that

corresponds to reflection across a hyperplane; this follows from the anti-commuting property of the Clifford algebra.

Spinor space

It is worth reviewing how spinor space and Weyl spinors are constructed, given this formalism. Given a real vector space V of dimension {{nowrap|1=n = 2m}} an even number, its complexification is

. It can be written as the direct sum of a subspace

of spinors and a subspace

of anti-spinors:

for

and the complex conjugate spinors span

. It is straightforward to see that the spinors anti-commute, and that the product of a spinor and anti-spinor is a scalar.

The spinor space is defined as the exterior algebra

. The (complexified) Clifford algebra acts naturally on this space; the (complexified) spin group corresponds to the length-preserving endomorphisms. There is a natural grading on the exterior algebra: The product of an odd number of copies of

correspond to the physics notion of fermions; the even subspace corresponds to the bosons. The representations of the action of the spin group on the spinor space can be built in a relatively straightforward fashion.^[3]

Complex case

It is a multiplicative subgroup of the complexification

of the Clifford algebra, and specifically, it is the subgroup generated by Spin(V) and the unit circle in C. Alternately, it is the quotient

where the equivalence

identifies {{nowrap|(a, u)}} with {{nowrap|(−a, −u)}}.

This has important applications in 4-manifold theory and Seiberg–Witten theory. In physics, the Spin group is appropriate for describing uncharged fermions, while the Spin^C group is used to describe electrically charged fermions. In this case, the U(1) symmetry is specifically the gauge group of electromagnetism.

Properties

The spin algebra

is a Lie algebra and it has a natural action on V (in which the spinors are constructed).

Accidental isomorphisms

In low dimensions, there are isomorphisms among the classical Lie groups called accidental isomorphisms. For instance, there are isomorphisms between low-dimensional spin groups and certain classical Lie groups, owing to low-dimensional isomorphisms between the root systems (and corresponding isomorphisms of Dynkin diagrams) of the different families of simple Lie algebras. Writing R for the reals, C for the complex numbers, H for the quaternions and the general understanding that Cl(n) is a short-hand for Cl(Rⁿ) and that Spin(n) is a short-hand for Spin(Rⁿ) and so on, one then has that^[3]

There are certain vestiges of these isomorphisms left over for {{nowrap|1=n = 7, 8}} (see Spin(8) for more details). For higher n, these isomorphisms disappear entirely.

Indefinite signature

In indefinite signature, the spin group {{nowrap|Spin(p, q)}} is constructed through Clifford algebras in a similar way to standard spin groups. It is a double cover of {{nowrap|SO₀(p, q)}}, the connected component of the identity of the indefinite orthogonal group {{nowrap|SO(p, q)}}. For {{nowrap|1=p + q > 2}}, {{nowrap|Spin(p, q)}} is connected; for {{nowrap|1=(p, q) = (1, 1)}} there are two connected components^[4]{{rp|193}}. As in definite signature, there are some accidental isomorphisms in low dimensions:

Topological considerations

Connected and simply connected Lie groups are classified by their Lie algebra. So if G is a connected Lie group with a simple Lie algebra, with G′ the universal cover of G, there is an inclusion

with Z(G′) the center of G′. This inclusion and the Lie algebra

of G determine G entirely (note that it is not the case that

and π₁(G) determine G entirely; for instance SL(2, R) and PSL(2, R) have the same Lie algebra and same fundamental group Z, but are not isomorphic).

The definite signature Spin(n) are all simply connected for n > 2, so they are the universal coverings of SO(n).

In indefinite signature, Spin(p, q) is not necessarily connected, and in general the identity component, Spin₀(p, q), is not simply connected, thus it is not a universal cover. The fundamental group is most easily understood by considering the maximal compact subgroup of SO(p, q), which is SO(p) × SO(q), and noting that rather than being the product of the 2-fold covers (hence a 4-fold cover), Spin(p, q) is the "diagonal" 2-fold cover – it is a 2-fold quotient of the 4-fold cover. Explicitly, the maximal compact connected subgroup of Spin(p, q) is

This allows us to calculate the fundamental groups of Spin(p, q), taking p ≥ q:

Thus once p, q > 2 the fundamental group is Z₂, as it is a 2-fold quotient of a product of two universal covers.

The maps on fundamental groups are given as follows. For p, q > 2, this implies that the map π₁(Spin(p, q)) → π₁(SO(p, q)) is given by 1 ∈ Z₂ going to (1,1) ∈ Z₂ × Z₂. For p = 2, q > 2, this map is given by 1 ∈ Z → (1,1) ∈ Z × Z₂. And finally, for p = q = 2, (1,0) ∈ Z × Z is sent to (1,1) ∈ Z × Z and (0, 1) is sent to (1, −1).

Center

The center of the spin groups, for n≥3, (complex and real) are given as follows:^[4]{{rp|208}}

Quotient groups

Quotient groups can be obtained from a spin group by quotienting out by a subgroup of the center, with the spin group then being a covering group of the resulting quotient, and both groups having the same Lie algebra.

Quotienting out by the entire center yields the minimal such group, the projective special orthogonal group, which is centerless, while quotienting out by {±1} yields the special orthogonal group – if the center equals {±1} (namely in odd dimension), these two quotient groups agree. If the spin group is simply connected (as Spin(n) is for n > 2), then Spin is the maximal group in the sequence, and one has a sequence of three groups,

which are the three compact real forms (or two, if SO = PSO ) of the compact Lie algebra

The homotopy groups of the cover and the quotient are related by the long exact sequence of a fibration, with discrete fiber (the fiber being the kernel) – thus all homotopy groups for k > 1 are equal, but π₀ and π₁ may differ.

For n > 2, Spin(n) is simply connected (π₀ = π₁ = {1} is trivial), so SO(n) is connected and has fundamental group Z₂ while PSO(n) is connected and has fundamental group equal to the center of Spin(n).

In indefinite signature the covers and homotopy groups are more complicated – Spin(p, q) is not simply connected, and quotienting also affects connected components. The analysis is simpler if one considers the maximal (connected) compact SO(p) × SO(q) ⊂ SO(p, q) and the component group of Spin(p, q).

Postnikov tower

The tower is obtained by successively removing (killing) homotopy groups of increasing order. This is done by constructing short exact sequences starting with an Eilenberg–MacLane space for the homotopy group to be removed. Killing the {{pi}}₃ homotopy group in Spin(n), one obtains the infinite-dimensional string group String(n).

Discrete subgroups

Discrete subgroups of the spin group can be understood by relating them to discrete subgroups of the special orthogonal group (rotational point groups).

Given the double cover Spin(n) → SO(n), by the lattice theorem, there is a Galois connection between subgroups of Spin(n) and subgroups of SO(n) (rotational point groups): the image of a subgroup of Spin(n) is a rotational point group, and the preimage of a point group is a subgroup of Spin(n), and the closure operator on subgroups of Spin(n) is multiplication by {±1}. These may be called "binary point groups"; most familiar is the 3-dimensional case, known as binary polyhedral groups.

Concretely, every binary point group is either the preimage of a point group (hence denoted 2G, for the point group G), or is an index 2 subgroup of the preimage of a point group which maps (isomorphically) onto the point group; in the latter case the full binary group is abstractly

(since {±1} is central). As an example of these latter, given a cyclic group of odd order

in SO(n), its preimage is a cyclic group of twice the order,

and the subgroup C_2k+1 < Spin(n) maps isomorphically to C_2k+1 < SO(n).

For point groups that reverse orientation, the situation is more complicated, as there are two pin groups, so there are two possible binary groups corresponding to a given point group.