| 词条 | Stairs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
A stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs, or simply stairs, is a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles. Special types of stairs include escalators and ladders. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators (lifts in British English), stairlifts and inclined moving walkways as well as stationary inclined sidewalks (pavements in British English). Components and terms{{refimprove section|date=January 2018}}A stair, or a stairstep, is one step in a flight of stairs.[1] In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a complete flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between landings. A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A stair hall is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the public hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. Box stairs are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings.[1] Stairs may be in a straight run, leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two straight flights connected at a 90 degree angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180 degree angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory and highrise buildings. Many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions.[1] Stairs may be a required component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels and walking surfaces not accessible by other means. Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the stairs that go nowhere located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a subject used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion, as in the work of artist M. C. Escher. "Stairway" is also a common metaphor for achievement or loss of a position in the society; or as a metaphor of hierarchy (e.g. Jacob's Ladder, The Battleship Potemkin). StepEach step is composed of tread and riser.
Curtail StepA decorative step at the bottom of the staircase which usually houses the volute and volute newel turning for a continuous handrail.[3] The railing systemThe balustrade is the system of railings and balusters that prevents people from falling over the edge.
; Volute : A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral. A volute is said to be right or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs. ; Turnout : Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout is a quarter-turn rounded end to the handrail. ; Gooseneck : The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck. ; Rosette : Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be trimmed by a rosette. ; Easings : Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the horizontal portion of the railing is called a "over easing". ; Core rail : Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately newel-to-newel). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails. Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century. The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BC.[5] Other terms{{unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}
MeasurementsThe measurements of a stair, in particular the rise height and going of the steps, should remain the same along the stairs.[9] The following stair measurements are important:
FormsStairs can take a large number of forms, combining winders and landings. The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, with neither winders nor landings. These types of stairs were commonly used in traditional homes as they are relatively easy to build and only need to be connected at the top and bottom; however, many modern properties may not choose straight flights of stairs because:[10]
Another form of straight staircase is the space saver staircase, also known as paddle stairs or alternating tread staircases, that can be used for a steeper rise, but these can only be used in certain circumstances and must comply with regulations. However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. Although the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place, many stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in the Building Regulations.[11] Straight stairs can have a mid-landing incorporated, but it's probably more common to see stairs that use a landing or winder to produce a bend in the stairs as a straight flight with a mid-landing will require a lot of linear space and is more commonly found in commercial buildings. "L" shaped stairways have one landing and usually change in direction by 90 degrees. "U" shaped stairs may employ a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180 degrees, or 2 landings for two changes in direction of 90 degrees each. A Z-shaped staircase incorporates two parallel 90° turns, creating a shape similar to that of the letter ‘Z’ if seen from above. Use of landings and a possible change of direction have the following effects:
Other forms include stairs with winders that curve or bend at an acute angle, three flight stairs that join at a landing to form a T-shape, and stairs with balconies and complex designs can be produced to suit individual properties. A mono string staircase is a term used for a steel spine staircase with treads. A Double string staircase has two steel beams on either side and treads in the center. {{clear}}Spiral and helical stairs{{See also|List of ancient spiral stairs}}{{Redirect|Spiral staircase}}{{redirect|Circular staircase|the novel|The Circular Staircase}}Spiral stairs, sometimes referred to in architectural descriptions as vice, wind around a newel (also the central pole). In Scottish architecture, they are commonly known as a turnpike stair. They typically have a handrail on the outer side only, and on the inner side just the central pole. A squared spiral stair assumes a square stairwell and expands the steps and railing to a square, resulting in unequal steps (larger where they extend into a corner of the square). A pure spiral assumes a circular stairwell and the steps and handrail are equal and positioned screw-symmetrically. A tight spiral stair with a central pole is very space efficient in the use of floor area. Spiral stairs have the disadvantage of being very steep - only if they are tight or are otherwise not supported by a center column. This is because of two reasons:
An example of perimeter support is the Vatican stairwell shown in the next section or the gothic stairwell shown to the left. That stairwell is only tight because of its design in which the diameter must be small. Many spirals, however, have sufficient width for normal size treads (8 inches) by being supported by any combination of a center pole, perimeter supports attaching to or beneath the treads, and a helical handrail. In this manner, the treads may be wide enough to accommodate low rises. The photo on the right are self-supporting stairs. This means the spiral needs to be necessarily steep to allow the weight to distribute safely down the spiral in the most vertical manner possible. Spiral steps with center columns or perimeter support do not have this limitation. Building codes may limit the use of spiral stairs to small areas or secondary usage if their treads are not sufficiently wide or have risers above 9 and a half inches.[12] The term "spiral" has a more narrow definition in a mathematical context, as a mathematical spiral lies in a single plane and moves towards or away from a central point. The mathematical term for motion where the locus remains at a fixed distance from a fixed line whilst moving in a circular motion about it is "helical". The presence or otherwise of a central pole does not affect the terminology applied to the design of the structure. Spiral stairs in medieval times were generally made of stone and typically wound in a clockwise direction (from the ascender's point of view),[13][14][15] to place attacking swordsmen (who were most often right-handed) at a disadvantage. This asymmetry forces the right-handed swordsman to engage the central pike and degrade his mobility compared with the defender who is facing down the stairs. Extant 14th to 17th-century examples of these stairways can be seen at Muchalls Castle, Crathes Castle and Myres Castle in Scotland. Exceptions to the rule exist, however, such as Ferniehirst Castle where the Clan Kerr defenders tended to be left-handed. This may be seen in the accompanying image of the Scala of the Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo, which winds up counter-clockwise. Developments in manufacturing and design have led to the introduction of kit form spiral stairs. Steps and handrails can be bolted together to form a complete unit. These stairs can be made out of steel, timber, concrete or a combination of materials. Helical or circular stairs do not have a central pole and there is a handrail on both sides. These have the advantage of a more uniform tread width when compared to the spiral staircase. Such stairs may also be built around an elliptical or oval planform. Both double spiral and double helix staircases are possible, with two independent helical stairs in the same vertical space, allowing one person to ascend and another to descend, without ever meeting if they choose different helices. For examples, the Pozzo di S. Patrizio allows one-way traffic so that laden and unladen mules can ascend and descend without obstruction, while Château de Chambord, Château de Blois, and the Crédit Lyonnais headquarters ensure separation for social purposes. Fire escapes, though built with landings and straight runs of stairs, are often functionally double helices, with two separate stairs intertwined and occupying the same floor space. This is often in support of legal requirements to have two separate fire escapes. Both spiral and helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A "quarter-turn" stair deposits the person facing 90 degrees from the starting orientation. Likewise, there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn and full-turn stairs. A continuous spiral may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi-turn spiral staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches and in lighthouses. Winders may be used in combination with straight stairs to turn the direction of the stairs. This allows for a large number of permutations. Alternating tread stairsWhere there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs allow for a safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs, which are almost always less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed. The image on the right illustrates the space efficiency gained by an alternating tread stair. The alternating tread stair appears in the image's center, with green-colored treads. The alternating stair requires one unit of space per step: the same as the half-width step on its left, and half as much as the full-width stair on its right. Thus, the horizontal distance between steps is in this case reduced by a factor of two, reducing the size of each step. The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for construction reasons there are narrow "unused" steps. There is often (here also) glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step. Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888.[16] {{Clear}}Ergonomics and building code requirementsErgonomically and for safety reasons, stairs must have certain measurements so that people can comfortably use them. Building codes typically specify certain measurements so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow. Nicolas-François Blondel in the last volume of his Cours d'architecture[17] (1675–1683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions.[18] He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.[19] It is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses.[20] Stairs can be a hazardous obstacle for some, so some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury.[21] Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs, or attached to the wall. A chair is attached to the rail and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail. UK requirements(overview of Approved document K – Stairs Ramps and Guards)[22] Approved document K categorises stairs as ‘Private’, ‘Institutional or assembly’ and ‘other’ When considering stairs for private dwellings Building regulations are required for stairs used where the difference of level is greater than {{convert|600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} Steepness of stairs – Rise and Going –Any rise between {{convert|155|and|220|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} used with any going (tread) between {{convert|245|and|260|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} or any rise between {{convert|165|and|200|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} used with any going between {{convert|223|and|300|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} Maximum Rise {{convert|220|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} and Minimum Going {{convert|220|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} remembering that the maximum pitch of private stairs is 42°. The normal relationship between dimensions of the rise and going is that twice the rise plus the going (2R + G) should be between {{convert|550|and|700|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} Construction of steps –Steps should have level treads, they may have open risers but if so treads should overlap at least {{convert|16|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 years old so the handrail ballister spacing should be constructed so that a {{convert|100|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} diameter sphere cannot pass through the opening in the risers in order to prevent children from sticking their heads through them and potentially getting stuck. Headroom –A headroom of {{convert|2|m|in|1|abbr=on}} is adequate. Special considerations can be made for loft conversions. Width of flights –No recommendations are given for stair widths. Length of flights –The approved document refers to 16 risers (steps) for stairs in shops or assembly building. There is no requirement for private stairs. In practice there will be fewer than 16 steps as 16 x {{convert|220|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} gives over {{convert|3.5|m|in|1|abbr=on}} total rise which is way above that in a domestic situation. Landings –Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least {{convert|400|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} across the whole landing Tapered steps –There are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above Alternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations Guarding –Flights and landings must be guarded at the sides where the drop is more than {{convert|600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. As domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 the guarding must be constructed so that a {{convert|100|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} diameter sphere cannot pass through any opening or constructed so that children will not be able to climb the guarding. The height for internal private stairs should be at least {{convert|900|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} and be able to withstand a horizontal force of {{convert|0.36|kN/m|abbr=on|lk=on}}. Industry guidance on designing a staircase to UK Regulation and Standards. US requirementsAmerican building codes, while varying from State to State and County to County, generally specify the following parameters:[23][24][25]
Stairs and artAs much as stairs are very functional, stairs are can be very decorative and an impressive part of a building. Especially at the entrance of a large building stairs play an important role in the first impression of a building. In large buildings such as banks this is very popular. Modern companies and construction utilize the opportunities of functional stairs to actually upgrade buildings. Large utilities such as banks as well as residential buildings such as penthouses (e.g. in St George Wharf Tower) have modern and luxurious installations. History{{Expand section|date=March 2019}}Notable sets of stairs
GallerySee also{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
References1. ^1 2 R.E. Putnam and G.E. Carlson, Architectural and Building Trades Dictionary, Third Edition, American Technical Publishers, Inc., 1974, {{ISBN|0-8269-0402-5}} 2. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.amstep.com/stair-nosing.html|title=Stair Nosing|last=|first=|date=|website=www.amstep.com|access-date=2018-01-26}} 3. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.blueprintjoinery.com/blog/stair-part-terminology-2-useful-words-to-know/|title=Stair Part Terminology 2 - Useful Words To Know|work=Blueprint Joinery|access-date=2018-11-02|language=en}} 4. ^{{cite web |url=http://m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=banister |title=Banister |publisher=Merriam Webster dictionary |accessdate=2 November 2010}} 5. ^Ruggeri, Stefania (2006) Selinunt, Affinità Elettive, Messina, {{ISBN|88-8405-079-0}}, p. 77 6. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wonkeedonkeerichardburbidge.co.uk/staircase-glossary/|title=Staircase glossary|website=www.wonkeedonkeerichardburbidge.co.uk}} 7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/realestate/hot-property/la-fi-hp-floating-staircases-20161029-snap-story.html|title=Floating staircases make their work look light and easy|last=Hsu|first=Tiffany|website=latimes.com|access-date=2018-01-26}} 8. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20080403110638/http://www.stairplace.co.uk/terminology.html Terminology]. Stairplace.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-11-11. 9. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |title=Architects' Data |first=Ernst |last=Neufert |authorlink=Ernst Neufert |first2=Peter |last2=Neufert |publisher=Blackwell Science |year=2000 |edition=3rd |isbn=0-632-05771-8 |page=191}} 10. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.keuka-studios.com/types-of-stairs/|title=Types of stairs - Advantages & Disadvantages.|work=Keuka Studios|access-date=2018-01-26|language=en-US}} 11. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2010/2214/pdfs/uksi_20102214_en.pdf |title=Info |date=2010 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk |format=PDF}} 12. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.salterspiralstair.com/technical/building-code/|title=Spiral Staircase Building Code {{!}} Salter Spiral Stair|work=Salter Stairs|access-date=2018-01-26|language=en-US}} 13. ^{{cite web|url=https://nerdist.com/theres-a-very-specific-reason-medieval-castles-stairs-were-all-clockwise/|title=There's a Very Specific Reason Medieval Castles Stairs Were All Clockwise - Nerdist|author=|date=28 November 2016|website=nerdist.com}} 14. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/406sa5/were_castle_stairs_designed_to_impede_sword_use/|title=r/AskHistorians - Were castle stairs designed to impede sword use?|author=|date=|website=reddit}} 15. ^{{cite web|url=http://truthorial.com/history/a-castle-s-spiral-staircase-was-a-defensive-measure|title=A Castle’s Spiral Staircase Was a Defensive Measure|first=|last=Truthorial|date=|website=truthorial.com}} 16. ^{{cite book |title=Moncktons One Plane Method Of Hand Railing and Stair Building, Copyright 1888 |author= James H. Monckton |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1891 |page= Plate 2, Figure 4}} 17. ^{{cite web |url=http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/blondel1698c |title=Vol. 4&5 (see pages 692&693)|accessdate=14 August 2012}} 18. ^{{cite EB1911|first=James |last=Bartlett|wstitle=Staircase |volume=25 |page=763 |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabri25chisrich#page/763/mode/1up}} 19. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.generativeart.com/on/cic/2000/KOUTAMANIS_GA_2000.HTM |title= Generativeart.com Koutamanis, GA }} 20. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.toolbase.org/Best-Practices/Codes-Regulations-Standards/stair-safety |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923030540/http://www.toolbase.org/Best-Practices/Codes-Regulations-Standards/stair-safety |dead-url=yes |archive-date=23 September 2006 |title=Stair Safety: A Review of the Literature and Data Concerning Stair Geometry and Other Characteristics |accessdate=2 November 2010 }} 21. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/12/AR2010081207264.html|title=Stairs can pose a problem as you get older, so take steps now to ease the climb|last=Haggerty|first=Maryann|date=2010-08-14|access-date=2018-01-26|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}} 22. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20100920094139/http://www.inbalance-energy.co.uk/building_regulations/Approved%20Document%20K%20Protection%20from%20Falling%20%281998%29.pdf The Building Regulations 2000: Protection from falling, collision and impact]. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. inbalance-energy.co.uk 23. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.amezz.com/ibc-stairs-code.htm |title=A-Mezz Engineered IBC Stairs |accessdate=2 November 2010}} 24. ^Codes. Amezz.com. Retrieved on 2013-11-11. 25. ^Stairway Manufacturers' Association. Stairways.org. Retrieved on 2013-11-11. 26. ^Section 3231(c) of the State of California Building Code specifies a rise between {{convert|4|and|7.5|in|mm}} and a minimum run of {{convert|10|in|mm}}. 27. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/how_to_central/home_clinic/1275341.html |title=Popular Mechanics homepage |accessdate=2 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422015049/http://www.popularmechanics.com/how_to_central/home_clinic/1275341.html |archivedate=22 April 2009 |df= }} 28. ^NFPA 101 Life Safety Code Handbook Tenth Edition 2006, Coté and Harrington, {{ISBN|0-87765-697-5}}, pg.167 29. ^{{cite web|title=ADA 2010|url=http://www.ada-compliance.com/ada-compliance/504-stairways.html|website=ADA Compliance}} 30. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/gwr5/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=49700 |title=Guinness World Records }} 31. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.lysefjordeninfo.no/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070507095212/http://www.lysefjordeninfo.no/en/ |dead-url=yes |archive-date=7 May 2007 |title=Welcome to Lysefjord |accessdate=2 November 2010 }} 32. ^Misaka Promenade, Japan's Longest Stone Steps Misato Town Office 33. ^{{Cite book | last = National Commission on Terrorist Attacks | title = The 9/11 Commission Report | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | date = July 22, 2004|edition=first | url = http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch9.pdf | page = 294 | isbn = 0-393-32671-3}} 34. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Leisure_and_culture/Local_history_and_heritage/Buildings_within_the_City/monument.htm |title=Monument |accessdate=28 April 2009 |date=28 April 2009 |work=www.cityoflondon.gov.uk |publisher=City of London |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620064022/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Leisure_and_culture/Local_history_and_heritage/Buildings_within_the_City/monument.htm |archivedate=20 June 2009 |df= }} 35. ^The Cascade Complex. Cmf.am. Retrieved on 2013-11-11. External links
Stairs}}{{Room|state=collapsed}}{{Authority control}} 10 : Stairs|Stairways|Architectural elements|Building engineering|Floors|Garden features|Pedestrian infrastructure|Safety codes|Transport buildings and structures|Vertical transport devices |
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