“Oil shale in Israel”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Oil shale in Israel is widespread but an undeveloped resource, largely because of economic and technological constraints. Israeli oil shales belong to the group of Upper Cretaceous marinites. Although oil-shale deposits may lie under as much as 15% of the country, only a small part of these are mineable. According to the Geological Survey of Israel, deposits that could have the biggest economic potential are located in the northern Negev, the largest being the Rotem-Yamin formation. For several decades, oil shale was used for small-scale power generation at Mishor Rotem. Several Israeli companies have proposed shale oil extraction; testing of the viability of the oil shale industry is currently being undertaken by Israel Energy Initiatives. However, as of 2011, there are no commercial oil shale operations in Israel.

Resource

Oil shale in Israel is Upper Cretaceous marinite, which kerogen is most-likely formed from marine phytoplankton.^[1]^[2] According to government agencies in Israel, oil shale within the nation is not at present a viable energy resource, given currently available technologies.^[2] Further study and analysis are needed to determine the full potential.^[4]

Oil shale deposits cover approximately 15% of Israel, mainly in the northern and central parts of the country. There are more than 30 known occurrences of oil shale.^[1] The theoretical total reserves are estimated to be about 300 billion tonnes. However, only a few billion tonnes are thought to be recoverable in practical terms through open-pit mining.^[2] The main resources are located in the north of the Negev desert.^[1] The principle economic potential have the Mishash and the Ghareb formations in northern Negev.^[1]^[2] As a source for hydrocarbon production, particular interest is oil shales in Dead Sea graben area.^[2] The largest deposit is Rotem-Yamin (Mishor Rotem and Mishor Yamin occurrences).^[1] Other larger deposits are Sde Boker, Nahal Zin, Zenifim, Shefela-Hartuv, Oron, Nabi Musa, En Boqeq, and Yeroham.^[2] According to Tsevi Minster of the Geological Survey of Israel, the largest oil shale occurrence may be Shefela.^[3]

The thickness of oil shale formations vary from {{convert|30|to|450|m}}; maximum thickness of the Ghareb Formation in the northern Negev is {{convert|130|m}}. The oil shale in Israel is carbonate-rich consisting of 65 to 80% chalk and marl, and 2–15% clays. Its moisture is up to 20%.^[1] Organic content is about 9–15% and sulfur 10–15%.^[4] It yields about {{convert|40|-|100|L}} of shale oil per one metric ton of oil shale.^[5] By mineral composition, Israeli oil shale is similar to oil shale in Jordan.^[3]

History

An oil shale-fired power plant at Mishor Rotem was commissioned in 1978. In 1978–1981, a 100 kW pilot oil shale-fired power plant was operated. Between 1982 and 1986, the PAMA company, a subsidiary of the Israel Electric Corporation, established and operated a {{nowrap|1 MW}} pilot plant, which used the fluidized bed combustion technology. The {{nowrap|13 MW}} demonstration plant was completed in 1989. After 2000, the power station was operated by the Rotem Amfert, a subsidiary of Israel Chemicals.^[5] The plant was closed in April, 2011. Israel Chemicals announced that it was closing the plant because it made negligible profits and because it was better to close the plant rather than cause future damage to the environment.^[6]

Bustan, an Israeli non-governmental organization, reported that Israel considered purchasing oil shale processing technology from Russia's Technopromexport in 1999. The project was not implemented. Bustan also reported that Pittsburgh-based MidAtlantic Energy Group considered a project to build a 150 MW oil shale-fired power plant at Mishor Rotem.^[7] Also this project was not implemented.

In 2006, A.F.S.K. Hom Tov announced a plan to build a small (1–2 tonne/h) test plant in Haifa before building a full scale production plant at Mishor Rotem.^[8]^[9]^[10] The company envisioned bringing bitumen {{convert|80|km}} by pipeline from the Ashdod refinery and returning product along the same corridor.^[11] However, the plan was not implemented, and Hom Tov subsequently ceased to operate.

In July 2011, Israel Energy Initiatives, a subsidiary of Genie Energy, received a one-year extension of its three year exclusive license to explore oil shale resources on {{convert|238|km2}} in Israel's Shfela region.^[12]^[13] The project is suspended. In May 2011, the Russian energy company Inter RAO announced that it had received a license to develop oil shale resources in the Negev desert. The company was said to be planning an oil extraction plant and a 150 MW oil shale-fired power plant.^[14]^[15]^[16] The license ended on 9 April 2012 and was not renewed.^[17]

Other companies having exploration licenses are Rotem Amfert Negev, Alderamin Holdings and Northwood Exploration Israel at the Mishom Rotem region, and Shapir Civil Engineering at the Oron region.^[18] Northwood Exploration Israel, owned by the Casella family, operates through limited partnership Rotem Energy. Its license covers about 245 million tonnes of oil shale containing about {{convert|135|e6oilbbl|abbr=off}} of shale oil. It plans to build a Galoter-type oil extraction plant with annual capacity of {{convert|800000|-|900000|oilbbl|abbr=off}} of shale oil, and a 15 MW oil shale-fired power plant.^[19]^[20]

Environmental protests

Oil-shale development in Israel has caused protests among environmental organisations. In 2006, the Israeli-Palestinian NGO Bustan opposed the development by A.F.S.K. Hom Tov due to environmental impact.^[21] Since the announcement in 2011 by IEI to develop shale-oil extraction in Israel, these project have been opposed by inhabitants of Adullam who formed Citizens' Committee to Save Adullam, and different environmental organizations and protest groups such as Greenpeace, Israel Union for Environmental Defense, Life and Environment, Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, and the U.S.-based Green Zionist Alliance.^[22]^[23]^[24] Main concerns of protesters have been increased greenhouse gas emissions, on-site storage of hazardous materials that could potentially infiltrate ground water, risk of other pollutants, drilling of multiple boreholes and altering the land for decades.^[25]

References

1. ^¹²{{cite book |title = Survey of energy resources |chapter = Oil Shale |last = Dyni |first = John R. |editor1-last = Clarke |editor1-first = Alan W. |editor2-last = Trinnaman |editor2-first = Judy A. |publisher = World Energy Council |year = 2010 |edition = 22 |page = 116 |url = http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser_2010_report.pdf |format = PDF |isbn = 978-0-946121-02-1 |accessdate = 27 October 2011 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120304064924/http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser_2010_report.pdf |archivedate = 4 March 2012 |df = dmy-all}}
2. ^{{Cite book | last =Dyni | first =John R. | title =Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294 | publisher = United States Geological Survey | year =2006 | url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5294/pdf/sir5294_508.pdf | format=PDF | accessdate =27 October 2011}}
3. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{Cite conference | last1 = Mister | first1 = Tsevi | title = Oil Shale in Israel: Occurrences, Grades and Prospects | conference = 27th Oil Shale Symposium | location = Golden, Colorado | url= http://www.ceri-mines.org/documents/27symposium/presentations/av02-4minster.pdf | format = PDF | date = 15 October 2007 | accessdate =27 October 2011}}
4. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Grinberg | first1 = A. | last2 = Keren | first2 = M. | last3 = Podshivalov | first3 = V. | last4 = Anderson | first4 = J. | title= Producing electricity from Israel oil shale with PFBC technology | journal=Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal | publisher=Estonian Academy Publishers | volume=17 | issue=4 | pages=307–312 | year=2000 | issn=0208-189X}}
5. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web | url=http://www.mni.gov.il/mni/en-US/NaturalResources/MinesandQuarries/QuarriesOilShale.htm | title= Oil Shale in Israel | first = Tsevi| last = Minster | publisher= Ministry of National Infrastructures | year=2006 | accessdate= 2011-10-27 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110930084551/http://www.mni.gov.il/mni/en-US/NaturalResources/MinesandQuarries/QuarriesOilShale.htm | archivedate = 2011-09-30 | deadurl = yes}}
6. ^{{Cite news | last1 = Azulai | first1 =Yuval | title = We are not drying up the Dead Sea | newspaper= Globes | date = 2011-03-22 | url = http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000632377&fid=1724 | accessdate =2012-03-15}}
7. ^{{cite web| publisher = Bustan| title = Bustan Backgrounder: Negev Oil Shale| url= http://www.bustan.org/admin/my_documents/my_files/DZ6_oilshale.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate=28 October 2011}} {{deadlink|date=September 2018}}
8. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.israel21c.org/environment/turning-shale-and-asphalt-into-oil | first = Stuart | last = Winer | title= Turning shale and asphalt into oil | work = Israel21c | date=14 January 2007 | accessdate=9 October 2011}}
9. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.upi.com/Energy/view.php?StoryID=20061107-070924-5161r | first = Leah| last = Krauss | title= Analysis: Israel sees shale replacing oil | work = UPI | date= 7 November 2006 | accessdate=9 February 2014}}
10. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.iaee.org/documents/2006/summary2.pdf | first = Neal | last = Sandler | title= Israel assesses new oil shale technology | work = Platts Energy Economist | publisher = Platts | issue = 297 | pages = 18–19 | date= July 2006 | accessdate=9 February 2014 | format = PDF}}
11. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2006/gb20060705_516609.htm | first = Neal | last = Sandler | title= Israel Presses for Oil From Shale | work = Bloomberg Businessweek | date= 4 July 2006 | accessdate=9 February 2014}}
12. ^{{cite web | publisher = IDT Corporation | title = Form 10-k | url= http://www.faqs.org/sec-filings/111011/IDT-CORP_10-K/#tx239371_12 | date = 11 October 2011 | accessdate=9 February 2014}}
13. ^{{cite news | newspaper = The Jerusalem Post | first = Sharon | last = Udasin | title = Oil shale can bring energy security and independence | url= http://www.jpost.com/Sci-Tech/Article.aspx?id=227414 | date = 1 July 2011 | accessdate=6 October 2011}}
14. ^{{Cite news | title = Inter RAO gets license to explore oil shale field in Negev Desert | url= http://www.interfax.co.uk/russia-cis-business-and-financial-news-bulletins-in-english/inter-rao-gets-license-to-explore-oil-shale-field-in-negev-desert-2/ | agency = Interfax | date = 20 May 2011 | accessdate = 28 October 2011 | id = {{subscription required}}}}
15. ^{{Cite news | script-title=ru:"Интер РАО" удаляется в пустыню | first1 = Vladimir | last1 = Dzaguto | first2 = Kirill | last2 = Melnikov | url= http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1645750 | newspaper = Kommersant | date = 23 May 2011 | accessdate = 28 October 2011 | language = Russian |trans-title=Inter RAO moves to the desert}}
16. ^{{Cite news | script-title=ru:Российская компания будет перерабатывать сланцы и производить электричество в Негеве | url= http://www.newsru.co.il/finance/23may2011/slancy8008.html | publisher = NEWSru.co.il | date = 23 May 2011 | accessdate = 28 October 2011 | language = Russian |trans-title=The Russian company will process oil shale and produce electricity in Negev}}
17. ^{{Cite web | title = Oil shale rights | url= http://energy.gov.il/English/Subjects/OilAndGasExploration/Documents/OilShalesPRIGHTS_020811.doc | publisher = Energy and Water Resources Ministry | date = 2011-08-03 | accessdate = 2014-03-08 | format = DOC}}
18. ^{{Cite web | title = Oil shale rights | url= http://energy.gov.il/English/Subjects/OilAndGasExploration/Documents/OilShalesPRIGHTS.pdf | publisher = Energy and Water Resources Ministry | date = 2014-01-20 | accessdate = 2014-03-08 | format = PDF}}
19. ^{{Cite news | title = Rotem Energy raising NIS 25m for Negev shale oil project | url = http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-rotem-energy-raising-nis-25m-for-negev-shale-oil-project-1001197074 | newspaper = Globes | date = 2017-07-13 | accessdate = 2018-02-04}}
20. ^{{Cite news | title = Australian-owned group to raise money for Israel shale oil project | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-energy-shaleoil/australian-owned-group-to-raise-money-for-israel-shale-oil-project-idUSKBN19X1QW | agency = Reuters | date = 2017-07-12 | accessdate = 2018-02-04}}
21. ^{{Cite news | title = Shale Oil Extraction at Expense of Israeli Beduin | first1 = Rebecca | last1 = Manski | newspaper = Jerusalem Post | date = 27 March 2006}}
22. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Activists-protest-oil-shale-project-at-Knesset | title = Activists protest oil shale project at Knesset | first1 = Sharon | last1 = Udasin | newspaper = Jerusalem Post | date = 21 March 2012 | accessdate = 9 February 2013}}
23. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.greenzionism.org/resources/articles/165 | title = Israel: The New Saudi Arabia? | first1 = David | last1 = Krantz | publisher = Green Zionist Alliance | date = 1 May 2011 | accessdate = 9 February 2013}}
24. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.greenprophet.com/2013/03/saudi-solar-israel-stuck-on-shale/ | title = Saudi Turns to Solar, Israel Stuck on Shale | first1 = Tafline | last1 = Laylin | publisher = Green Prophet | date = 5 March 2013 | accessdate = 9 February 2013}}
25. ^{{Cite news | url= http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/12/oil-shale-protest/ | title = Oil & Wine Don’t Mix: Over 1,000 Israelis Protest Oil Shale In Adullam | first1 = Tafline | last1 = Laylin | publisher = Green Prophet | date = 8 December 2010 | accessdate = 9 February 2013}}