| 释义 |
- Observation history
- Designations
- Units of measurement
- Formation and evolution Star formation Main sequence Post–main sequence Massive stars Collapse Binary stars
- Distribution
- Characteristics Age Chemical composition Diameter Kinematics Magnetic field Mass Rotation Temperature
- Radiation Luminosity Magnitude
- Classification
- Variable stars
- Structure
- Nuclear fusion reaction pathways
- See also
- References
- Further reading
- External links
{{short description|An astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity}}{{About|the astronomical object}}{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}{{featured article}}A star is type of astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the estimated 300 sextillion ({{Val|3e23}})[1] stars in the Universe are invisible to the naked eye from Earth, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way. For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core, releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space. Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star's lifetime, and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes. Near the end of its life, a star can also contain degenerate matter. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity, and spectrum respectively. The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star, including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star's environment affects its rotation and movement. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram). Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined. A star's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements. When the stellar core is sufficiently dense, hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion, releasing energy in the process.[1] The remainder of the star's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes. The star's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity. A star with mass greater than 0.4 times the Sun's will expand to become a red giant when the hydrogen fuel in its core is exhausted.[2] In some cases, it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core. As the star expands it throws a part of its mass, enriched with those heavier elements, into the interstellar environment, to be recycled later as new stars.[3] Meanwhile, the core becomes a stellar remnant: a white dwarf, a neutron star, or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole. Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution.[4] Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a star cluster or a galaxy. Observation historyHistorically, stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world. They have been part of religious practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation. Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable. By convention, astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun.[6] The motion of the Sun against the background stars (and the horizon) was used to create calendars, which could be used to regulate agricultural practices.[7] The Gregorian calendar, currently used nearly everywhere in the world, is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth's rotational axis relative to its local star, the Sun. The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC.[8] The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC, during the Kassite Period (c. 1531–1155 BC).[9] The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC, with the help of Timocharis.[10] The star catalog of Hipparchus (2nd century BC) included 1020 stars, and was used to assemble Ptolemy's star catalogue.[11] Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova (new star).[12] Many of the constellations and star names in use today derive from Greek astronomy. In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens, Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear.[13] In 185 AD, they were the first to observe and write about a supernova, now known as the SN 185.[14] The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova, which was observed in 1006 and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese astronomers.[15] The SN 1054 supernova, which gave birth to the Crab Nebula, was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers.[16][17][18] Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars. They built the first large observatory research institutes, mainly for the purpose of producing Zij star catalogues.[19] Among these, the Book of Fixed Stars (964) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, who observed a number of stars, star clusters (including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi's Clusters) and galaxies (including the Andromeda Galaxy).[20] According to A. Zahoor, in the 11th century, the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars, and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019.[21]According to Josep Puig, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.[22] | archivedate=2006-07-12}}
102. ^{{cite journal | last=Loktin | first=A. V. | title=Kinematics of stars in the Pleiades open cluster | journal=Astronomy Reports | volume=50 | issue=9 | pages=714–721 |date=September 2006 | doi=10.1134/S1063772906090058 | bibcode=2006ARep...50..714L}}
103. ^{{cite web | date=September 10, 1999 | url=http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=HIPPARCOS | title=Hipparcos: High Proper Motion Stars | publisher=ESA | accessdate=2006-10-10}}
104. ^{{cite journal | last= Johnson | first= Hugh M. | title=The Kinematics and Evolution of Population I Stars | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific | date=1957 | volume=69 | issue=406 | page=54 | bibcode=1957PASP...69...54J | doi=10.1086/127012}}
105. ^{{cite journal | last1=Elmegreen | first1=B. | last2=Efremov | first2=Y.N. | title=The Formation of Star Clusters | journal=American Scientist | date=1999 | volume=86 | issue=3 | page=264 | url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/15714/page/1 | accessdate=2006-08-23 | doi=10.1511/1998.3.264 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20050323072521/http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/15714/page/1 |archivedate= March 23, 2005|bibcode= 1998AmSci..86..264E}}
106. ^{{cite web | last=Brainerd | first=Jerome James | date=July 6, 2005 | url=http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/observation/XRayCorona.html | title=X-rays from Stellar Coronas | publisher=The Astrophysics Spectator | accessdate= 2007-06-21}}
107. ^{{cite journal | last= Berdyugina | first= Svetlana V. | date=2005 | url =http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2005-8/ | title =Starspots: A Key to the Stellar Dynamo | journal= Living Reviews in Solar Physics | volume= 2 | issue= 1 | pages= 8 | accessdate= 2007-06-21| bibcode= 2005LRSP....2....8B | doi= 10.12942/lrsp-2005-8 }}
108. ^{{cite journal |first=Nathan |last=Smith |date=1998 |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs/mercury/9804/eta.html |title=The Behemoth Eta Carinae: A Repeat Offender |journal=Mercury Magazine |volume=27 |issue=4 |page=20 |accessdate=2006-08-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927091554/http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs/mercury/9804/eta.html |archivedate=2006-09-27 |df=|bibcode=1998Mercu..27d..20S }}
109. ^{{Cite journal |title= Evidence for a fundamental stellar upper mass limit from clustered star formation |url= http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/348/1/187.full.pdf |journal= Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date= February 11, 2004 |pages= 187–191 |volume= 348 |issue= 1 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07340.x |first= C. |last= Weidner |first2= P. |last2= Kroupa |bibcode=2004MNRAS.348..187W|arxiv = astro-ph/0310860 }}
110. ^{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1051/0004-6361/201322696| title = The Wolf-Rayet stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud| journal = Astronomy & Astrophysics| volume = 565| pages = A27| year = 2014| last1 = Hainich | first1 = R.| last2 = Rühling | first2 = U.| last3 = Todt | first3 = H.| last4 = Oskinova | first4 = L. M.| last5 = Liermann | first5 = A.| last6 = Gräfener | first6 = G.| last7 = Foellmi | first7 = C.| last8 = Schnurr | first8 = O.| last9 = Hamann | first9 = W.-R. | arxiv = 1401.5474| bibcode = 2014A&A...565A..27H}}
111. ^{{Cite journal |title= The emergence of super-canonical stars in R136-type starburst clusters |url= http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/426/2/1416 |journal= Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date= October 21, 2012 |pages= 1416–1426 |volume= 426 |issue= 2 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21672.x |first= Sambaran |last= Banerjee |first2= Pavel |last2= Kroupa |first3= Seungkyung |last3= Oh |bibcode=2012MNRAS.426.1416B|arxiv = 1208.0826 }}
112. ^{{cite news | title=Ferreting Out The First Stars | publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics | date=September 22, 2005 | url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/2005/pr200531.html | accessdate=2006-09-05}}
113. ^{{cite journal|last1=Sobral |first1=David |last2=Matthee |first2=Jorryt |last3=Darvish |first3=Behnam |last4=Schaerer |first4=Daniel |last5=Mobasher |first5=Bahram |last6=Röttgering |first6=Huub J. A. |last7=Santos |first7=Sérgio |last8=Hemmati |first8=Shoubaneh |title=Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations In The Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters At The Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic Confirmation |date=4 June 2015 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal | doi = 10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139|arxiv = 1504.01734 |bibcode = 2015ApJ...808..139S |volume=808 |issue=2 |pages=139}}
114. ^{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Astronomers Report Finding Earliest Stars That Enriched Cosmos |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/science/space/astronomers-report-finding-earliest-stars-that-enriched-cosmos.html |date=17 June 2015 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=17 June 2015}}
115. ^{{cite web |title=2MASS J05233822-1403022 |url=http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Name=2MASS%20J05233822-1403022&Ident=%40788130&submit=submit |publisher=SIMBAD – Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg |accessdate=14 December 2013}}
116. ^{{cite web |first=Alan |last=Boss |date=April 3, 2001 |url=http://www.carnegieinstitution.org/News4-3,2001.html |title=Are They Planets or What? |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |accessdate=2006-06-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065124/http://www.carnegieinstitution.org/News4-3%2C2001.html |archivedate=September 28, 2006 |deadurl=yes |df=}}
117. ^1 {{cite web |last=Shiga |first=David |date=August 17, 2006 |url=http://www.newscientistspace.com/article/dn9771-mass-cutoff-between-stars-and-brown-dwarfs-revealed.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114221813/http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn9771-mass-cutoff-between-stars-and-brown-dwarfs-revealed.html |archivedate=November 14, 2006 |title=Mass cut-off between stars and brown dwarfs revealed |publisher=New Scientist |accessdate=2006-08-23 |deadurl=yes |df=}}
118. ^{{cite news | title=Hubble glimpses faintest stars | publisher=BBC | date=August 18, 2006 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5260008.stm | accessdate=2006-08-22 | first=Elli | last=Leadbeater}}
119. ^{{cite news | title=Flattest Star Ever Seen | publisher=ESO | date=June 11, 2003 | url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0316/ | accessdate=2006-10-03}}
120. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/solar-rotation.html|title=Solar Rotation Varies by Latitude|date=January 23, 2013|publisher=NASA}}
121. ^{{cite journal|title=Spectroscopic Determinations of Solar Rotation|last=Howard|first=R.|last2=Harvey|first2=J.|journal=Solar Physics|volume=12|issue=1|pages=23–51|bibcode=1970SoPh...12...23H|year=1970|doi=10.1007/BF02276562}}
122. ^{{cite web | last=Fitzpatrick | first=Richard | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/lectures.html | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104142353/http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/lectures.html | archivedate=2010-01-04 | title=Introduction to Plasma Physics: A graduate course | publisher=The University of Texas at Austin | accessdate=2006-10-04}}
123. ^{{cite journal |last= Villata |first= Massimo |title= Angular momentum loss by a stellar wind and rotational velocities of white dwarfs |journal= Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date= 1992 |volume= 257 |issue= 3 |pages= 450–454 |bibcode= 1992MNRAS.257..450V| doi = 10.1093/mnras/257.3.450 }}
124. ^{{cite news | title=A History of the Crab Nebula | publisher=ESO | date=May 30, 1996 | url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1996/22/astrofile/ | accessdate=2006-10-03}}
125. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/distance/frontiers/pulsars/section1.html|title=Properties of Pulsars|publisher=Jodrell Bank Observatory, University of Manchester|work=Frontiers of Modern Astronomy|access-date=2018-08-17}}
126. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s5.htm |title=Properties of Stars: Color and Temperature |accessdate=2007-10-09 |last=Strobel |first=Nick |date=August 20, 2007 |work=Astronomy Notes |publisher=Primis/McGraw-Hill, Inc. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070626090138/http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s5.htm |archivedate=2007-06-26}}
127. ^{{cite web | first=Courtney | last=Seligman | work=Self-published | url=http://cseligman.com/text/stars/heatflowreview.htm | title =Review of Heat Flow Inside Stars | accessdate= 2007-07-05}}
128. ^{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=Michael A. |last2=Gregory |first2=Stephan A. |title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics |edition=4th |date=1998 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |page=321}}
129. ^{{cite news | last=Koppes | first=Steve | title=University of Chicago physicist receives Kyoto Prize for lifetime achievements in science | publisher=The University of Chicago News Office | date=June 20, 2003 | url=http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/03/030620.parker.shtml | accessdate=2012-06-15}}
130. ^{{cite web |url=http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_colour.html |title=The Colour of Stars |publisher=Australian Telescope Outreach and Education |accessdate=2006-08-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6630AbtJZ?url=http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_colour.html |archivedate=2012-03-10 |df=}}
131. ^{{cite news | title=Astronomers Measure Mass of a Single Star – First Since the Sun | publisher=Hubble News Desk | date=July 15, 2004 | url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/24/text/ | accessdate=2006-05-24}}
132. ^{{cite journal | last1=Garnett | first1=D. R. | last2=Kobulnicky | first2=H. A. | title=Distance Dependence in the Solar Neighborhood Age-Metallicity Relation | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | date=2000 | volume=532 | issue= 2 | pages=1192–1196 | doi= 10.1086/308617| bibcode=2000ApJ...532.1192G|arxiv= astro-ph/9912031}}
133. ^{{cite news | author=Staff | date=January 10, 2006 | title=Rapidly Spinning Star Vega has Cool Dark Equator | publisher=National Optical Astronomy Observatory | url=http://www.noao.edu/outreach/press/pr06/pr0603.html | accessdate=2007-11-18}}
134. ^{{cite journal |last1=Michelson |first1=A. A. |last2=Pease |first2=F. G. |title=Starspots: A Key to the Stellar Dynamo |journal=Living Reviews in Solar Physics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=8 |date=2005 |url=http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2005-8/|bibcode=2005LRSP....2....8B |doi=10.12942/lrsp-2005-8 }}
135. ^{{cite journal |last1=Manduca |first1=A. |last2=Bell |first2=R. A. |last3=Gustafsson |first3=B. |title=Limb darkening coefficients for late-type giant model atmospheres |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=1977 |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=809–813 |bibcode=1977A&A....61..809M}}
136. ^{{cite journal |last1=Chugainov |first1=P. F. |title=On the Cause of Periodic Light Variations of Some Red Dwarf Stars |journal=Information Bulletin on Variable Stars |date=1971 |volume=520 |pages=1–3 |bibcode=1971IBVS..520....1C}}
137. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.nso.edu/PR/answerbook/magnitude.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080206074842/http://www.nso.edu/PR/answerbook/magnitude.html |archivedate= 2008-02-06 |title= Magnitude |publisher= National Solar Observatory – Sacramento Peak |accessdate= 2006-08-23}}
138. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_luminosity.html |title=Luminosity of Stars |publisher=Australian Telescope Outreach and Education |accessdate=2006-08-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809120004/http://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach//education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_specparallax.html |archivedate=2014-08-09 |df= }}
139. ^{{cite web | last1=Hoover | first1=Aaron | date =January 15, 2004 | url=http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2004news/bigbrightstar.htm | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807035239/http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2004news/bigbrightstar.htm | archivedate=2007-08-07 | title=Star may be biggest, brightest yet observed | publisher=HubbleSite | accessdate=2006-06-08}}
140. ^{{cite web | date=August 17, 2006 | url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2006/37/image/a/ | title=Faintest Stars in Globular Cluster NGC 6397 | publisher=HubbleSite | accessdate=2006-06-08}}
141. ^{{cite web | last=Smith | first=Gene | date=April 16, 1999 | url=http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/Stars.html | title=Stellar Spectra | publisher=University of California, San Diego | accessdate=2006-10-12}}
142. ^{{cite journal | last=Fowler | first=A. | title=The Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra | journal=Nature | date=February 1891 | volume=45 | issue=1166 | pages=427–428 | doi= 10.1038/045427a0 |bibcode= 1892Natur..45..427F}}
143. ^{{cite book | first1=Carlos | last1=Jaschek | last2=Jaschek | first2=Mercedes | date=1990 | title=The Classification of Stars | publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=31–48 | isbn=978-0-521-38996-9}}
144. ^1 2 {{cite web | first=Alan M | last=MacRobert | url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/howto/basics/3305876.html | title= The Spectral Types of Stars | publisher= Sky and Telescope | accessdate= 2006-07-19}}
145. ^{{cite web | url= http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/people/ross/ph3080/whitey.htm | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091008115925/http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/people/ross/ph3080/whitey.htm | archivedate= 2009-10-08 | title= White Dwarf (wd) Stars | publisher= White Dwarf Research Corporation | accessdate= 2006-07-19}}
146. ^1 2 3 {{cite web |url=http://www.aavso.org/types-variables |title=Types of Variable |date=May 11, 2010 |publisher=AAVSO |accessdate=2010-08-20}}
147. ^{{cite web | date =2004-11-01 | url= http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/cataclysmic_variables.html | title= Cataclysmic Variables | publisher= NASA Goddard Space Flight Center | accessdate= 2006-06-08}}
148. ^{{cite journal|bibcode=2009yCat....102025S|title=VizieR Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars (Samus+ 2007-2013)|journal=VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/Gcvs. Originally Published In: 2009yCat....102025S|volume=1|display-authors=etal|author1=Samus|first1=N. N.|last2=Durlevich|first2=O. V.|year=2009}}
149. ^{{cite book |last1=Hansen |first1=Carl J. |last2=Kawaler |first2=Steven D. |last3=Trimble |first3=Virginia |pages=32–33 |title=Stellar Interiors |publisher=Springer |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-387-20089-7}}
150. ^1 2 {{cite book|title=Structure and Evolution of the Stars|last=Schwarzschild|first=Martin|date=1958|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-08044-4}}
151. ^{{cite web |url= http://aether.lbl.gov/www/tour/elements/stellar/stellar_a.html |title= Formation of the High Mass Elements |publisher= Smoot Group |accessdate= 2006-07-11}}
152. ^1 {{cite web |date= 2006-09-01 |url= http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/stars.html |title= What is a Star? |publisher= NASA |accessdate= 2006-07-11}}
153. ^{{cite press release | publisher= ESO | date= August 1, 2001 | title= The Glory of a Nearby Star: Optical Light from a Hot Stellar Corona Detected with the VLT | url= http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0127/ | accessdate= 2006-07-10}}
154. ^{{cite journal | display-authors= 1 | last1= Burlaga | first1= L. F. | last2= Ness | first2= N. F. | last3= Acuña | first3= M. H. | last4= Lepping | first4= R. P. | last5= Connerney | first5= J. E. P. | last6= Stone | first6= E. C. | last7= McDonald | first7= F. B. | title= Crossing the Termination Shock into the Heliosheath: Magnetic Fields | journal= Science | date= 2005 | volume= 309 | issue= 5743 | pages= 2027–2029 | doi= 10.1126/science.1117542 | pmid= 16179471 | bibcode= 2005Sci...309.2027B}}
155. ^1 {{cite web | date= February 16, 2005 | url= http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/stars/MainSequence.html | title= Main Sequence Stars | publisher= The Astrophysics Spectator | accessdate= 2006-10-10}}
156. ^{{cite journal |display-authors= 1 |last1= Wallerstein |first1= G. |last2= Iben Jr. |first2= I. |last3= Parker |first3= P. |last4= Boesgaard |first4= A. M. |last5= Hale |first5= G. M. |last6= Champagne |first6= A. E. |last7= Barnes |first7= C. A. |last8= KM-dppeler |first8= F. |last9= Smith |first9= V. V. |last10= Hoffman |first10= R. D. |last11= Timmes |first11= F. X. |last12= Sneden |first12= C. |last13= Boyd |first13= R. N. |last14= Meyer |first14= B. S. |last15= Lambert |first15= D. L. |title= Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress |journal= Reviews of Modern Physics |date= 1999 |volume= 69 |issue= 4 |pages= 995–1084 |url= http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf |accessdate= 2006-08-04 |doi= 10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995 |bibcode= 1997RvMP...69..995W}}
157. ^{{cite journal | last1=Girardi | first1=L. | last2=Bressan | first2=A. | last3=Bertelli | first3=G. | last4=Chiosi | first4=C. | title=Evolutionary tracks and isochrones for low- and intermediate-mass stars: From 0.15 to 7 Msun, and from Z=0.0004 to 0.03 | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement | date=2000 | volume=141 | issue=3 | pages=371–383 | doi=10.1051/aas:2000126 |arxiv= astro-ph/9910164 |bibcode= 2000A&AS..141..371G}}
158. ^{{cite journal |last1= Woosley |first1= S. E. |last2= Heger |first2= A. |last3= Weaver |first3= T. A. |title= The evolution and explosion of massive stars |journal= Reviews of Modern Physics |date= 2002 |volume= 74 |issue= 4 |pages= 1015–1071 |bibcode= 2002RvMP...74.1015W |doi= 10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015}}
159. ^11.5 days is 0.0315 years.
160. ^1 {{cite book |last1= Lyall |first1= Francis |last2= Larsen |first2= Paul B. |title= Space Law: A Treatise |page= 176 |publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |date= 2009 |isbn= 978-0-7546-4390-6 |chapter= Chapter 7: The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies}}
161. ^1 {{cite web |title= Star naming |date= 2005 |publisher= Scientia Astrophysical Organization. |url= http://www.astrometry.org/starnaming.php |accessdate= 2010-06-29 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100617054639/http://www.astrometry.org/starnaming.php |archivedate= 2010-06-17 |df= }}
162. ^1 {{cite web |title= Disclaimer: Name a star, name a rose and other, similar enterprises |work= British Library |publisher= The British Library Board |url= http://www.bl.uk/names.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100119033625/http://www.bl.uk/names.html |archivedate= 2010-01-19 |accessdate= 2010-06-29}}
163. ^1 {{cite web |first= Johannes |last= Andersen |title= Buying Stars and Star Names |publisher= International Astronomical Union |url= http://www.iau.org/public/buying_star_names/ |accessdate= 2010-06-24}}
164. ^1 {{cite journal |first= Phil |last= Pliat |title= Name Dropping: Want to Be a Star? |journal= Skeptical Inquirer |volume= 30 |issue= 5 |date= September–October 2006 |url= http://www.csicop.org/si/show/name_dropping_want_to_be_a_star/ |accessdate= 2010-06-29}}
165. ^1 {{cite web |last= Adams |first= Cecil |date= April 1, 1998 |title= Can you pay $35 to get a star named after you? |url= http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/826/can-you-pay-35-to-get-a-star-named-after-you |publisher= The Straight Dope |accessdate= 2006-08-13}}
166. ^1 {{cite news |last1= Golden |first1= Frederick |last2= Faflick |first2= Philip |date= January 11, 1982 |title= Science: Stellar Idea or Cosmic Scam? |work= Times Magazine |publisher= Time Inc. |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,925195,00.html |accessdate= 2010-06-24}}
167. ^1 {{cite news |first= Patrick |last= Di Justo |date= December 26, 2001 |title= Buy a Star, But It's Not Yours |work= Wired |publisher= Condé Nast Digital |url= http://archive.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2001/12/49345 |accessdate= 2010-06-29}}
168. ^1 {{cite book |first= Philip C. |last= Plait |authorlink= Phil Plait| date= 2002 |title= Bad astronomy: misconceptions and misuses revealed, from astrology to the moon landing "hoax" |pages= 237–240 |publisher= John Wiley and Sons |isbn= 978-0-471-40976-2|title-link= Bad astronomy: misconceptions and misuses revealed, from astrology to the moon landing "hoax" }}
169. ^1 {{cite news |first= Tom |last= Sclafani |date= May 8, 1998 |title= Consumer Affairs Commissioner Polonetsky Warns Consumers: "Buying A Star Won't Make You One" |publisher= National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, Aricebo Observatory |url= http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/starnames/isr_news.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060111052632/http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/starnames/isr_news.html |dead-url= yes |archive-date= January 11, 2006 |accessdate= 2010-06-24 }}
170. ^1 2 {{cite journal |title=HD 140283: A Star in the Solar Neighborhood that Formed Shortly After the Big Bang |date=2013 |author1=H. E. Bond |author2=E. P. Nelan |author3=D. A. VandenBerg |author4=G. H. Schaefer |author5=D. Harmer |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/765/1/L12 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=765 |pages=L12 |issue=1 |arxiv=1302.3180 |bibcode=2013ApJ...765L..12B}}
[160][161][162][163][164][165][166][167][168][169][170]
}} Further reading- {{cite book |first1= Cliff |last1= Pickover |authorlink= Cliff Pickover |date= 2001 |title= The Stars of Heaven |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-514874-9}}
- {{cite book |first1= John |last1= Gribbin |authorlink= John Gribbin |first2= Mary |last2= Gribbin |date= 2001 |title= Stardust: Supernovae and Life – The Cosmic Connection |publisher= Yale University Press |isbn= 978-0-300-09097-0}}
- {{cite book |first= Stephen |last= Hawking |title= A Brief History of Time |authorlink= Stephen Hawking |date= 1988 |publisher= Bantam Books |isbn= 978-0-553-17521-9}}
External links{{Wiktionary}}{{commons category|Stars}}- {{cite web |last= Kaler |first= James |title= Portraits of Stars and their Constellations |publisher= University of Illinois |url= http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sow.html |accessdate= 2010-08-20}}
- {{cite web |title= Query star by identifier, coordinates or reference code |work= SIMBAD |publisher= Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg |url= http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-fid |accessdate= 2010-08-20}}
- {{cite web |title= How To Decipher Classification Codes |publisher= Astronomical Society of South Australia |url= http://www.assa.org.au/sig/variables/classifications.asp |accessdate= 2010-08-20}}
- {{cite web |display-authors= 1 |last1= Prialnick |first1= Dina |last2= Wood |first2= Kenneth |last3= Bjorkman |first3= Jon |last4= Whitney |first4= Barbara |last5= Wolff |first5= Michael |last6= Gray |first6= David |last7= Mihalas |first7= Dimitri |title= Stars: Stellar Atmospheres, Structure, & Evolution |date= 2001 |publisher= University of St. Andrews |url= http://www-star.st-and.ac.uk/~kw25/teaching/stars/stars.html |accessdate= 2010-08-20}}
{{Star|state=uncollapsed}}{{Variable star topics}}{{Supernovae}}{{Big History}}{{Authority control}} 3 : Light sources|Stars|Stellar astronomy |