1. Etymology

2. Location and city layout
    Layout 

3. People, language and society

4. Culture
    Art and architecture 

5. Site
    Cemeteries  Notable structures  Public buildings  Temples  Other buildings  Destruction by ISIL   Restoration  

6. History
    Early period  Hellenistic and Roman periods  Autonomous Palmyrene region  Palmyrene kingdom  Persian wars  Palmyrene empire  Later Roman and Byzantine periods  Arab caliphates  Umayyad and early Abbasid periods  Decentralization  Mamluk period  Al Fadl principality  Ottoman era and later periods  Syrian Civil War 

7. Government
    Military  Relations with Rome 

8. Religion
    Malakbel and the Roman Sol Invictus 

9. Economy
    Commerce 

10. Excavations

11. See also

12. Notes

13. References
     Citations  Sources 

14. External links

Palmyra ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ɑː|l|'|m|aɪ|r|ə}}; Palmyrene: Tadmor; {{lang-ar|تَدْمُر}} Tadmur) is an ancient Semitic city in present-day Homs Governorate, Syria. Archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first mention the city in the early second millennium BC. Palmyra changed hands on a number of occasions between different empires before becoming a subject of the Roman Empire in the first century AD.

The city grew wealthy from trade caravans; the Palmyrenes became renowned as merchants who established colonies along the Silk Road and operated throughout the Roman Empire. Palmyra's wealth enabled the construction of monumental projects, such as the Great Colonnade, the Temple of Bel, and the distinctive tower tombs. Ethnically, the Palmyrenes combined elements of Amorites, Arameans, and Arabs. The city's social structure was tribal, and its inhabitants spoke Palmyrene (a dialect of Aramaic), while using Greek for commercial and diplomatic purposes. Greco-Roman culture influenced the culture of Palmyra, which produced distinctive art and architecture that combined eastern and western traditions. The city's inhabitants worshiped local Semitic deities, Mesopotamian and Arab gods.

By the third century AD Palmyra had become a prosperous regional center. It reached the apex of its power in the 260s, when the Palmyrene King Odaenathus defeated Persian Emperor Shapur I. The king was succeeded by regent Queen Zenobia, who rebelled against Rome and established the Palmyrene Empire. In 273, Roman emperor Aurelian destroyed the city, which was later restored by Diocletian at a reduced size. The Palmyrenes converted to Christianity during the fourth century and to Islam in the centuries following the conquest by the 7th-century Rashidun Caliphate, after which the Palmyrene and Greek languages were replaced by Arabic.

Before AD 273, Palmyra enjoyed autonomy and was attached to the Roman province of Syria, having its political organization influenced by the Greek city-state model during the first two centuries AD. The city became a Roman colonia during the third century, leading to the incorporation of Roman governing institutions, before becoming a monarchy in 260. Following its destruction in 273, Palmyra became a minor center under the Byzantines and later empires. Its destruction by the Timurids in 1400 reduced it to a small village. Under French Mandatory rule in 1932, the inhabitants were moved into the new village of Tadmur, and the ancient site became available for excavations. During the Syrian Civil War in 2015, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) destroyed large parts of the ancient city, which was recaptured by the Syrian Army on 2 March 2017.

Etymology

The name "Tadmor" is known from the early second millennium BC;{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA238 238]}} eighteenth century BC tablets from Mari written in cuneiform record the name as "Ta-ad-mi-ir", while Assyrian inscriptions of the eleventh century BC record it as Ta-ad-mar.{{sfn|Limet|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=-5o3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104 104]}} Aramaic Palmyrene inscriptions themselves showed two variants of the name; TDMR (i.e. Tadmar) and TDMWR (i.e. Tadmor).{{sfn|Bubeník|1989|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DT98F5CFtQsC&pg=PA229 229]}}{{sfn|Wolfensohn|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=m2WSDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 118]}} The etymology of the name is unclear; the standard interpretation, supported by Albert Schultens, connects it to the Semitic word for "date palm", tamar ({{Hebrew|תמר}}),{{#tag:ref|The Semitic word T.M.R is the common root for the words that designate palm dates in Arabic, Hebrew, Ge'ez and other Semitic languages.{{sfn|Murtonen|1986|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=t_9NkGsNtcYC&pg=PA445 445]}}
Schultens argued that in the Bible (1 Kings 9:18), the name is written "Tamor" in the text and "Tadmor" in the margin.{{sfn|Ibn Šaddād|1732|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FCgVAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA3-PT79&lpg=RA3-PT79 79]}} Schultens considered "Tamor" to be the original name and derived from "Tamar".{{sfn|Charnock|1859|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2BulY4WvsYC&pg=PA200 200]}} However, the inclusion of a -d- in "Tamar" cannot be explained.{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Charnock|1859|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2BulY4WvsYC&pg=PA200 200]}}{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}} thus referring to the palm trees that surrounded the city.{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}}

The Greek name {{lang|grc|Παλμύρα}} (Latinized Palmyra) is first recorded by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century AD.{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA248 248]}} It was used throughout the Greco-Roman world.{{sfn|Charnock|1859|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2BulY4WvsYC&pg=PA200 200]}} It is generally believed that "Palmyra" derives from "Tadmor" and two possibilities have been presented by linguists; one view holds that Palmyra was an alteration of Tadmor.{{sfn|Charnock|1859|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2BulY4WvsYC&pg=PA200 200]}} According to the suggestion by Schultens, "Palmyra" could have arisen as a corruption of "Tadmor", via an unattested form "Talmura", changed to "Palmura" by influence of the Latin word palma (date "palm"),{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA238 238]}} in reference to the city's palm trees, then the name reached its final form "Palmyra".{{sfn|Charnock|1859|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2BulY4WvsYC&pg=PA201 201]}} The second view, supported by some philologists, such as Jean Starcky, holds that Palmyra is a translation of "Tadmor" (assuming that it meant palm), which had derived from the Greek word for palm, "Palame".{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA238 238]}}{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}}

An alternative suggestion connects the name to the Syriac tedmurtā (ܬܕܡܘܪܬܐ) "miracle", hence tedmurtā "object of wonder", from the root dmr "to wonder"; this possibility was mentioned favourably by Franz Altheim and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl (1973), but rejected by Jean Starcky (1960) and Michael Gawlikowski (1974).{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA248 248]}} Michael Patrick O'Connor (1988) suggested that the names "Palmyra" and "Tadmor" originated in the Hurrian language.{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA238 238]}} As evidence, he cited the inexplicability of alterations to the theorized roots of both names (represented in the addition of -d- to tamar and -ra- to palame).{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}} According to this theory, "Tadmor" derives from the Hurrian word tad ("to love") with the addition of the typical Hurrian mid vowel rising (mVr) formant mar.{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA236 236]}} Similarly, according to this theory, "Palmyra" derives from the Hurrian word pal ("to know") using the same mVr formant (mar).{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA236 236]}}

Location and city layout

Palmyra lies {{convert|215|km|abbr=on}} northeast of the Syrian capital, Damascus,{{sfn|Guntern|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=cyGAqI9SHPEC&pg=PA433 433]}} in an oasis surrounded by palms (of which twenty varieties have been reported).{{sfn|O'Connor|1988|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235 235]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA56 56]}} Two mountain ranges overlook the city; the northern Palmyrene mountain belt from the north and the southern Palmyrene mountains from the southwest.{{sfn|Izumi|1995|p= 19}} In the south and the east Palmyra is exposed to the Syrian Desert.{{sfn|Izumi|1995|p= 19}} A small wadi (al-Qubur) crosses the area, flowing from the western hills past the city before disappearing in the eastern gardens of the oasis.{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA229 229]}} South of the wadi is a spring, Efqa.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA17 17]}} Pliny the Elder described the town in the 70s AD as famous for its desert location, the richness of its soil,{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} and the springs surrounding it, which made agriculture and herding possible.{{#tag:ref|Pliny mentioned that Palmyra was independent, but by AD 70, Palmyra was part of the Roman empire and Pliny's account over Palmyra's political situation is dismissed by modern scholars, as it is considered to rely on older accounts, dating to the period of Octavian, when Palmyra was independent.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA44 44]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}}

Layout

Palmyra began as a small settlement near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al-Qubur.{{sfn|Tomlinson|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=b9-KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204]}} The settlement, known as the Hellenistic settlement, had residences expanding to the wadi's northern bank during the first century.{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA229 229]}} Although the city's walls originally enclosed an extensive area on both banks of the wadi,{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA229 229]}} the walls rebuilt during Aurelian's reign surrounded only the northern-bank section.{{sfn|Juchniewicz|2013|p=194}}{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA229 229]}} Most of the city's monumental projects were built on the wadi's northern bank,{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA230 230]}} among them is the Temple of Bel, on a tell which was the site of an earlier temple (known as the Hellenistic temple).{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA63 63]}} However, excavation supports the theory that the tell was originally located on the southern bank, and the wadi was diverted south of the tell to incorporate the temple into Palmyra's late first and early second century urban organization on the north bank.{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA231 231]}}

Also north of the wadi was the Great Colonnade, Palmyra's {{convert|1.1|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} main street,{{sfn|Crawford|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gGMc04ge4yoC&pg=PA123 123]}} which extended from the Temple of Bel in the east,{{sfn|Cotterman|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0IKiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17]}} to the Funerary Temple no.86 in the city's western part.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA55 55]}}{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA364 364]}} It had a monumental arch in its eastern section,{{sfn|De Laborde|1837|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LwAcAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA239 239]}} and a tetrapylon stands in the center.{{sfn|Ricca|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA295 295]}} The Baths of Diocletian, built on the ruins of an earlier building which might have been the royal palace,{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}} were on the left side of the colonnade.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA124 124]}} Nearby were residences,{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} the Temple of Baalshamin,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA22 22]}} and the Byzantine churches, which include "Basilica IV", Palmyra's largest church.{{sfn|Majcherek|2013|p= 254}} The church is dated to the Justinian age,{{sfn|Majcherek|2013|p= 256}} its columns are estimated to be {{convert|7|m}} high, and its base measured {{convert|27.5|by|47.5|m}}.{{sfn|Majcherek|2013|p= 254}}

The Temple of Nabu and the Roman theater were built on the colonnade's southern side.{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA208 208]}} Behind the theater were a small senate building and the large Agora, with the remains of a triclinium (banquet room) and the Tariff Court.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}} A cross street at the western end of the colonnade leads to the Camp of Diocletian,{{sfn|Crawford|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gGMc04ge4yoC&pg=PA123 123]}}{{sfn|Beattie|Pepper|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&pg=RA2-PA290 290]}} built by Sosianus Hierocles (the Roman governor of Syria).{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}} Nearby are the Temple of Al-lāt and the Damascus Gate.{{sfn|Browning|1979|p= 180}}

People, language and society

At its height during the reign of Zenobia, Palmyra had more than 200,000 residents.{{sfn|Cotterman|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0IKiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} Its earliest known inhabitants were the Amorites in the early second millennium BC,{{sfn|Ben-Yehoshua|Borowitz|Hanus|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Jjwq206QoC&pg=PT26 26]}} and by the end of the millennium Arameans were mentioned as inhabiting the area.{{sfn|Greene|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=amlXOOaSuLMC&pg=PA17 17]}}{{sfn|Cotterman|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0IKiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} Arabs arrived in the city in the late first millennium BC.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} Sheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BC), was mentioned as the commander of "the arabs and neighbouring tribes to the number of ten thousands";{{sfn|Kaizer|2017|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34 34]}} Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359 359]}} The Arab newcomers were assimilated by the earlier inhabitants, used Palmyrene as a mother tongue,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA19 19]}} and formed a significant segment of the aristocracy.{{sfn|Luxenberg|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=227GhaeKYl4C&pg=PA11 11]}}

The city also had a Jewish community; inscriptions in Palmyrene from the necropolis of Beit She'arim in Lower Galilee confirm the burial of Palmyrene Jews.{{sfn|Teixidor|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA209 209]}} Occasionally and rarely, members of the Palmyrene families took Greek names while ethnic Greeks were few; the majority of people with Greek names, who did not belong to one of the city's families, were freed slaves.{{sfn|Rostovtzeff|1932|p= [https://archive.org/stream/RostCaravanCities/Rost_Caravan_Cities#page/n171/mode/2up 133]}} The Palmyrenes seem to have disliked the Greeks, considered them foreigners, and restricted their settlement in the city.{{sfn|Rostovtzeff|1932|p= [https://archive.org/stream/RostCaravanCities/Rost_Caravan_Cities#page/n171/mode/2up 133]}}

Until the late third century AD, Palmyrenes spoke a dialect of Aramaic and used the Palmyrene alphabet.{{#tag:ref|The last inscription written in Palmyrene is dated to 279/280.{{sfn|Hartmann|2016|p=67}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Beyer|1986|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=pZ53zpMQNLEC&pg=PA28 28]}}{{sfn|Healey|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0_KnI588AnkC&pg=PA46 46]}} The use of Latin was minimal, but Greek was used by wealthier members of society for commercial and diplomatic purposes,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA280 280]}} and it became the dominant language during the Byzantine era.{{sfn|Ricca|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA293 293]}} After the Arab conquest, Greek was replaced by Arabic,{{sfn|Ricca|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA293 293]}} from which a Palmyrene dialect evolved.{{sfn|Belnap|Haeri|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l03h94vqCQMC&pg=PA21 21]}}

Palmyra's society was a mixture of the different peoples inhabiting the city,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA18 18]}}{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR9 9]}} which is seen in Aramaic, Arabic and Amorite clan names.{{#tag:ref|E.g for Aramaic: Gaddibol and Yedi'bel.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}
E.g for Arab: Bene Ma'zin.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}
E.g for Amorite: Zmr' and Kohen-Nadu.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}{{sfn|Teixidor|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA195 195]}} Palmyra was a tribal community but due to the lack of sources, an understanding of the nature of Palmyrene tribal structure is not possible.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA38 38]}} Thirty clans have been documented;{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}} five of which were identified as tribes (Phyle (φυλή)) comprising several sub-clans.{{#tag:ref|The Phyle are the Bene Mita, Komare, Mattabol, Ma'zin and Claudia.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA24 24]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA24 24]}} By the time of Nero Palmyra had four tribes, each residing in an area of the city bearing its name.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA25 25]}} Three of the tribes were the Komare, Mattabol and Ma'zin; the fourth tribe is uncertain, but was probably the Mita.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA25 25]}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA74 74]}} In time, the four tribes became highly civic and tribal lines blurred;{{#tag:ref|In general, a civic tribe (Phyle) is a collection of people chosen from the collective population and ascribed a deity as a tribal ancestor, then assigned a territory for them to reside in. The Phyles were united by their citizenship instead of origin.{{sfn|Meier|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ex8HGWKViYQC&pg=PA60 60]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA25 25]}} by the second century clan identity lost its importance, and it disappeared during the third century.{{#tag:ref|The clans might have gathered under the name of the four tribes causing them to disappear.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA25 25]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA25 25]}} Even the four tribes ceased to be important by the third century as only one inscription mentions a tribe after the year 212; instead, aristocrats played the decisive role in the city's social organization.{{sfn|Hartmann|2016|p= 61, 62}} During the Umayyad period Palmyra was mainly inhabited by the Kalb tribe.{{sfn|Grabar|Holod|Knustad|Trousdale|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA156 156]}} Benjamin of Tudela recorded the existence of 2,000 Jews in the city during the twelfth century.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA192 192]}} Palmyra declined after its destruction by Timur in 1400,{{sfn|Kitto|1837|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMBWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA341 341]}} and was a village of 6,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th century; although surrounded by Bedouin, the villagers preserved their dialect.{{sfn|Belnap|Haeri|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l03h94vqCQMC&pg=PA21 21]}} Palmyra maintained the life of a small settlement until its relocation in 1932.{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA568 568]}}

Culture

The scarce artifacts found in the city dating to the Bronze Age reveal that, culturally, Palmyra was most affiliated with western Syria.{{sfn|Bielińska|1997|p= 44}} Classical Palmyra had a distinctive culture,{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA246 246]}} based on a local Semitic tradition,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA281 281]}} and influenced by Greece and Rome.{{#tag:ref|E.g. by the second century AD, Palmyrene goddess Al-lāt was portrayed in the style of the Greek goddess Athena, and named Athena-Al-lāt. However, this assimilation of Al-lāt to Athena did not extend beyond iconography.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR62 62]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA33 33]}} To appear better integrated into the Roman Empire, some Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names, either alone or in addition to a second native name.{{sfn|Yon|2002|p= 59}} The extent of Greek influence on Palmyra's culture is debated.{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT264 264]}} Scholars interpreted the Palmyrenes' Greek practices differently; many see those characters as a superficial layer over a local essence.{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT263 263]}} Palmyra's senate was an example; although Palmyrene texts written in Greek described it as a "boule" (a Greek institution), the senate was a gathering of non-elected tribal elders (a Near-Eastern assembly tradition).{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA446 446]}} Others view Palmyra's culture as a fusion of local and Greco-Roman traditions.{{sfn|Millar|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=mimRtU4vtDwC&pg=PA108 108]}}

The culture of Persia influenced Palmyrene military tactics, dress and court ceremonies.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 86]}} Palmyra had no large libraries or publishing facilities, and it lacked an intellectual movement characteristic of other Eastern cities such as Edessa or Antioch.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 79]}} Although Zenobia opened her court to academics, the only notable scholar documented was Cassius Longinus.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 79]}}

Palmyra had a large agora.{{#tag:ref|In the Hellenistic tradition, the agora was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the city.{{sfn|Vasudevan|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&pg=PA66 66]}}|group=note}} However, unlike the Greek Agoras (public gathering places shared with public buildings), Palmyra's agora resembled an Eastern caravanserai more than a hub of public life.{{sfn|Raja|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0VK6uPyhFLAC&pg=PA198 198]}}{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 296]}} The Palmyrenes buried their dead in elaborate family mausoleums,{{sfn|Chapot|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=lDmEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168]}} most with interior walls forming rows of burial chambers (loculi) in which the dead, laying at full length, were placed.{{sfn|Benzel|Graff|Rakic|Watts|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gBCHchG6qDAC&pg=PA106 106]}}{{sfn|Evans|Kevorkian|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMaY0_y6gK0C&pg=PA115 115]}} A relief of the person interred formed part of the wall's decoration, acting as a headstone.{{sfn|Evans|Kevorkian|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMaY0_y6gK0C&pg=PA115 115]}} Sarcophagi appeared in the late second century and were used in some of the tombs.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA54 54]}} Many burial monuments contained mummies embalmed in a method similar to that used in Ancient Egypt.{{sfn|Colledge|1976|p=61}}{{sfn|Wood|1753|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=QOYRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 22]}}

Art and architecture

Although Palmyrene art was related to that of Greece, it had a distinctive style unique to the middle-Euphrates region.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA329 329]}} Palmyrene art is well represented by the bust reliefs which seal the openings of its burial chambers.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA329 329]}} The reliefs emphasized clothing, jewelry and a frontal representation of the person depicted,{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA329 329]}}{{sfn|Tuck|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=PJ_mBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 252]}} characteristics which can be seen as a forerunner of Byzantine art.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA329 329]}} According to Michael Rostovtzeff, Palmyra's art was influenced by Parthian art.{{sfn|Yarshater|1998|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=39XZDnOWUXsC&pg=PA16 16]}} However, the origin of frontality that characterized Palmyrene and Parthian arts is a controversial issue; while Parthian origin has been suggested (by Daniel Schlumberger),{{sfn|Drijvers|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z51PhFgWoksC&pg=PA69 69]}} Michael Avi-Yonah contends that it was a local Syrian tradition that influenced Parthian art.{{sfn|Hachlili|1998|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&pg=PA177 177]}} Little painting, and none of the bronze statues of prominent citizens (which stood on brackets on the main columns of the Great Colonnade), have survived.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p= 168}} A damaged frieze and other sculptures from the Temple of Bel, many removed to museums in Syria and abroad, suggest the city's public monumental sculpture.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p= 168}}

Many surviving funerary busts reached Western museums during the 19th century.{{sfn|Romano|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ta04lu10P0YC&pg=PA280 280]}} Palmyra provided the most convenient Eastern examples bolstering an art-history controversy at the turn of the 20th century: to what extent Eastern influence on Roman art replaced idealized classicism with frontal, hieratic and simplified figures (as believed by Josef Strzygowski and others).{{sfn|Strong|1995|p= 168}}{{sfn|Fowden|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=YKY9MuRTFQ4C&pg=PA17 17]}} This transition is seen as a response to cultural changes in the Western Roman Empire, rather than artistic influence from the East.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p= 168}} Palmyrene bust reliefs, unlike Roman sculptures, are rudimentary portraits; although many reflect high quality individuality, the majority vary little across figures of similar age and gender.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p= 168}}

Like its art, Palmyra's architecture was influenced by the Greco-Roman style, while preserving local elements (best seen in the Temple of Bel).{{#tag:ref|There are hints of Greek training; the names of three Greeks who worked on the construction of the Temple of Bel are known through inscriptions, including a probably Greek architect named Alexandras (Αλεξάνδρας).{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA54 54]}}{{sfn|Schmidt-Colinet|1997|p= 157}} However, some Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names and native citizens with the name Alexander are attested in the city.{{sfn|Yon|2002|p= 59, 10}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA54 54]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA64 64]}} Enclosed by a massive wall flanked with traditional Roman columns,{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA64 64]}}{{sfn|Rostovtzeff|1971|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5lVDl8uqMQC&pg=PA90 90]}} Bel's sanctuary plan was primarily Semitic.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA64 64]}} Similar to the Second Temple, the sanctuary consisted of a large courtyard with the deity's main shrine off-center against its entrance (a plan preserving elements of the temples of Ebla and Ugarit).{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA64 64]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA65 65]}}

Site

Cemeteries

West of the ancient walls, the Palmyrenes built a number of large-scale funerary monuments which now form the Valley of Tombs,{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 218]}} a {{convert|1|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} necropolis.{{sfn|Beattie|Pepper|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&pg=RA2-PA291 291]}} The more than 50 monuments were primarily tower-shaped and up to four stories high.{{sfn|Richardson|2002|p= 47}} Towers were replaced by funerary temples in the first half of the second century AD, as the most recent tower is dated to AD 128.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA55 55]}} The city had other cemeteries in the north, southwest and southeast, where the tombs are primarily hypogea (underground).{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 219]}}{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 220]}}

Notable structures

Public buildings

• The senate building is largely ruined.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}} It is a small building that consists of a peristyle courtyard and a chamber that has an apse at one end and rows of seats around it.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}}
• Much of the Baths of Diocletian are ruined and do not survive above the level of the foundations.{{sfn|Beattie|Pepper|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&pg=RA2-PA288 288]}} The complex's entrance is marked by four massive Egyptian granite columns each {{convert|1.3|m}} in diameter, {{convert|12.5|m}} high and weigh 20 tonnes.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}} Inside, the outline of a bathing pool surrounded by a colonnade of Corinthian columns is still visible in addition to an octagonal room that served as a dressing room containing a drain in its center.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}}
• The Agora of Palmyra is part of a complex that also includes the tariff court and the triclinium, built in the second half of the first century AD.{{sfn|Browning|1979|p= 157}} The agora is a massive {{convert|71|by|84|m}} structure with 11 entrances.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}} Inside the agora, 200 columnar bases that used to hold statues of prominent citizens were found.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}} The inscriptions on the bases allowed an understanding of the order by which the statues were grouped; the eastern side was reserved for senators, the northern side for Palmyrene officials, the western side for soldiers and the southern side for caravan chiefs.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA240 240]}}
• The Tariff Court is a large rectangular enclosure south of the agora and sharing its northern wall with it.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=253}} Originally, the entrance of the court was a massive vestibule in its southwestern wall.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=253}} However, the entrance was blocked by the construction of a defensive wall and the court was entered through three doors from the Agora.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=253}} The court gained its name by containing a 5 meters long stone slab that had the Palmyrene tax law inscribed on it.{{sfn|Beattie|Pepper|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&pg=RA2-PA289 289]}}{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2011|p= 420}}
• The Triclinium of the Agora is located to the northwestern corner of the Agora and can host up to 40 person.{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA209 209]}}{{sfn|al-Asaad|Chatonnet|Yon|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA6 6]}} It is a small {{convert|12|by|15|m}} hall decorated with Greek key motifs that run in a continuous line halfway up the wall.{{sfn|Richardson|2002|p= 46}} The building was probably used by the rulers of the city;{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA209 209]}} the French general director of antiquities in Syria, Henri Arnold Seyrig, proposed that it was a small temple before being turned into a triclinium or banqueting hall.{{sfn|al-Asaad|Chatonnet|Yon|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA6 6]}}

Temples

• The Temple of Bel was dedicated in AD 32;{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA323 323]}} it consisted of a large precinct lined by porticos; it had a rectangular shape and was oriented north-south.{{sfn|Gates|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA390 390]}} The exterior wall was {{convert|205|m|ft|adj=on}} long with a propylaea,{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PR361 361]}} and the cella stood on a podium in the middle of the enclosure.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR128 128]}}
• The Temple of Baalshamin dates to the late 2nd century BC in its earliest phases;{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 276]}} its altar was built in AD 115,{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA65 65]}} and it was substantially rebuilt in AD 131.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA320 320]}} It consisted of a central cella and two colonnaded courtyards north and south of the central structure.{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} A vestibule consisting of six columns preceded the cella which had its side walls decorated with pilasters in Corinthian order.{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217]}}
• The Temple of Nabu is largely ruined.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA241 241]}} The temple was Eastern in its plan; the outer enclosure's propylaea led to a {{convert|20|by|9|m}} podium through a portico of which the bases of the columns survives.{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} The peristyle cella opened onto an outdoor altar.{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}}
• The Temple of Al-lāt is largely ruined with only a podium, a few columns and the door frame remaining.{{sfn|Beattie|Pepper|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&pg=RA2-PA290 290]}} Inside the compound, a giant lion relief (Lion of Al-lāt) was excavated and in its original form, was a relief protruding from the temple compound's wall.{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217]}}{{sfn|Markowski|2005|p= 473}}
• The ruined Temple of Baal-hamon was located on the top of Jabal al-Muntar hill which oversees the spring of Efqa.{{sfn|Downey|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA21 21]}} Constructed in AD 89, it consisted of a cella and a vestibule with two columns.{{sfn|Downey|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA21 21]}} The temple had a defensive tower attached to it;{{sfn|Downey|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA22 22]}} a mosaic depicting the sanctuary was excavated and it revealed that both the cella and the vestibule were decorated with merlons.{{sfn|Downey|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA22 22]}}

Other buildings

• The Great Colonnade was Palmyra's {{convert|1.1|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} main street; most of the columns date to the second century AD and each is {{convert|9.50|m}} high.{{sfn|Crawford|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gGMc04ge4yoC&pg=PA123 123]}}
• The Funerary Temple no.86 (also known as the House Tomb) is located at the western end of the Great Colonnade.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA55 55]}}{{sfn|Casule|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=QNGyWSx8U34C&pg=PA103 103]}} It was built in the third century AD and has a portico of six columns and vine patterns carvings.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA238 238]}} Inside the chamber, steps leads down to a vault crypt.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA238 238]}} The shrine might have been connected to the royal family as it is the only tomb inside the city's walls.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA67 67]}}
• The Tetrapylon was erected during the renovations of Diocletian at the end of the third century.{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA568 568]}} It is a square platform and each corner contains a grouping of four columns.{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA208 208]}} Each column group supports a 150 tons cornice and contains a pedestal in its center that originally carried a statue.{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA208 208]}} Out of sixteen columns, only one is original while the rest are from reconstruction work by the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities in 1963, using concrete.{{sfn|Darke|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA238 238]}} The original columns were brought from Egypt and carved out of pink granite.{{sfn|Carter|Dunston|Thomas|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA208 208]}}
• The Walls of Palmyra started in the first century as a protective wall containing gaps where the surrounding mountains formed natural barriers; it encompassed the residential areas, the gardens and the oasis.{{sfn|Juchniewicz|2013|p=194}} After 273, Aurelian erected the rampart known as the wall of Diocletian;{{sfn|Juchniewicz|2013|p=194}} it enclosed about 80 hectares, a much smaller area than the original pre-273 city.{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA298 298]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142]}}

Destruction by ISIL

According to eyewitnesses, on 23 May 2015 ISIL militants destroyed the Lion of Al-lāt and other statues; this came days after the militants had gathered the citizens and promised not to destroy the city's monuments.{{sfn|Jeffries|2015}} ISIL destroyed the Temple of Baalshamin on 23 August 2015 according to Syria's antiquities chief Maamoun Abdulkarim and activists.{{sfn|Qassim|2015}} On 30 August 2015, ISIL destroyed the cella of the Temple of Bel.{{sfn|O'Connor|2015}} On 31 August 2015, the United Nations confirmed the temple was destroyed;{{sfn|Barnard|Saad|2015}} the temple's exterior walls and entrance arch remain.{{sfn|O'Connor|2015}}{{sfn|Tharoor|Maruf|2016}}

It became known on 4 September 2015 that ISIL had destroyed three of the best preserved tower tombs including the Tower of Elahbel.{{sfn|Shaheen|Swann|Levett|2015}} On 5 October 2015, news media reported that ISIL was destroying buildings with no religious meaning, including the monumental arch.{{sfn|Makieh|2015}} On 20 January 2017, news emerged that the militants had destroyed the tetrapylon and part of the theater.{{sfn|Shaheen|2017}} Following the March 2017 capture of Palmyra by the Syrian Army, Maamoun Abdulkarim, director of antiquities and museums at the Syrian Ministry of Culture, stated that the damage to ancient monuments may be lesser than earlier believed and preliminary pictures showed almost no further damage than what was already known.{{sfn|Makieh|Francis|2017}} Antiquities official Wael Hafyan stated that the Tetrapylon was badly damaged while the damage to the facade of the Roman theatre was less serious.{{sfn|Maqdisi|2017}}

Restoration

In response to the destruction, on 21 October 2015, Creative Commons started the New Palmyra project, an online repository of three-dimensional models representing the city's monuments; the models were generated from images gathered, and released into the public domain, by the Syrian internet advocate Bassel Khartabil between 2005 and 2012.{{sfn|Busta|2015}}{{sfn|Greenberg|2015}} Consultations with the UNESCO, UN specialized agencies, archaeological associations and museums produced plans to restore Palmyra; the work is postponed until the violence in Syria ends as many international partners fear for the safety of their teams as well as ensuring that the restored artifacts will not be damaged again by further battles.{{sfn|Lamb|2017}} Minor restorations took place; two Palmyrene funerary busts, damaged and defaced by ISIL, were sent off to Rome where they were restored and sent back to Syria.{{sfn|Squires|2017}} The restoration of the Lion of Al-lāt took two months and the statue was displayed on 1 October 2017; it will remain in the National Museum of Damascus.{{sfn|Makieh|Perry|Merriman|2017}}

Regarding the restoration, the discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, stated that: "The archaeological site of Palmyra is a vast field of ruins and only 20-30% of it is seriously damaged. Unfortunately these included important parts, such as the Temple of Bel, while the Arc of Triumph can be rebuilt." He added: "In any case, by using both traditional methods and advanced technologies, it might be possible to restore 98% of the site".{{sfn|Matthiae|2017}} According to the governor of Homs' province Talal Barazi, restoration to damaged parts of the city is underway, with the ancient city ready to receive tourists in summer 2019.{{sfn|Sputnik|2018}}

History

The site at Palmyra provided evidence for a Neolithic settlement near Efqa,{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA565 565]}} with stone tools dated to 7500 BC.{{sfn|Colledge|Wiesehöfer|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AIgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA566 566]}} Archaeological sounding in the tell beneath the Temple of Bel uncovered a mud-brick structure built around 2500 BC, followed by structures built during the Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age.{{sfn|al-Maqdissi|2010|p= 140}}

Early period

The city entered the historical record during the Bronze Age around 2000 BC, when Puzur-Ishtar the Tadmorean (Palmyrene) agreed to a contract at an Assyrian trading colony in Kultepe.{{sfn|Colledge|Wiesehöfer|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AIgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA566 566]}} It was mentioned next in the Mari tablets as a stop for trade caravans and nomadic tribes, such as the Suteans,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA18 18]}} and was conquered along with its region by Yahdun-Lim of Mari.{{sfn|Smith|1956|p= 38}} King Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria passed through the area on his way to the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 18th century BC;{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} by then, Palmyra was the easternmost point of the kingdom of Qatna,{{sfn|Ismail|2002|p=325}} and it was attacked by the Suteans who paralyzed the traffic along the trade routes.{{sfn|Van Koppen|2015|p= 87}} Palmyra was mentioned in a 13th-century BC tablet discovered at Emar, which recorded the names of two "Tadmorean" witnesses.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA18 18]}} At the beginning of the 11th century BC, King Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria recorded his defeat of the "Arameans" of "Tadmar";{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA18 18]}} according to the king, Palmyra was part of the land of Amurru.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA686 686]}} The city became the eastern border of Aram-Damascus which was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 732 BC.{{sfn|Sader|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}

The Hebrew Bible (Second Book of Chronicles 8:4) records a city by the name "Tadmor" as a desert city built (or fortified) by King Solomon of Israel;{{sfn|Shahîd|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BEvEV9OVzacC&pg=PA173 173]}} Flavius Josephus mentions the Greek name "Palmyra", attributing its founding to Solomon in Book VIII of his Antiquities of the Jews.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA320 320]}} Later Arabic traditions attribute the city's founding to Solomon's Jinn.{{sfn|Shahîd|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=pfwAG3-rpzcC&pg=PA282 282]}} The association of Palmyra with Solomon is a conflation of "Tadmor" and a city built by Solomon in Judea and known as "Tamar" in the Books of Kings (1 Kings 9:18).{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 276]}} The biblical description of "Tadmor" and its buildings does not fit archaeological findings in Palmyra, which was a small settlement during Solomon's reign in the 10th century BC.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 276]}}

Hellenistic and Roman periods

During the Hellenistic period under the Seleucids (between 312 and 64 BC), Palmyra became a prosperous settlement owing allegiance to the Seleucid king.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 276]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA52 52]}} Evidence for Palmyra's urbanisation in the Hellenistic period is rare; an important piece is the Laghman II inscription found in Laghman, modern Afghanistan, and commissioned by the Indian emperor Ashoka c. 250 BC. The reading is contested, but according to semitologist André Dupont-Sommer, the inscription records the distance to "Tdmr" (Palmyra).{{#tag:ref|According to the reading of Dupont-Sommer, Palmyra is separated by two hundreds "bows" from Laghman; In the inscription, the word used to indicate bow is "QŠTN", and Dupont-Sommer asserted that it is an Aramaic word denoting a unit to measure a distance of 15 to 20 kilometres.{{sfn|Dupont-Sommer|1970|p= 163}} Franz Altheim and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl read three hundred instead of two hundred bows; they equated it with the Vedic unit of measurement yojona, c. 12 kilometres, which would result in a number close to the actual 3800 kilometres distance between Laghman and Palmyra.{{sfn|Kaizer|2017|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33, 34]}} The linguist Helmut Humbach criticized the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered his claims regarding the distance to have no validation.{{sfn|MacDowall|Taddei|1978|p= 192}} In the Aramaic alphabet, the letters "r" and "d" share an identical character;{{sfn|Kaizer|2017|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} Jean de Menasce read the city's name "Trmd" and identified it with Termez on the Oxus river.{{sfn|Mukherjee|2000|p= 11}} Linguist Franz Rosenthal also contested the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered that the inscription refers to an estate called "Trmn".{{sfn|Rosenthal|1978|p= 99}} Historian Bratindra Nath Mukherjee rejected the readings of both Dupont-Sommer and de Menasce; he contested the large value attributed to "bow", considering it a small unit. The historian also rejected the reading of Tdmr and Trmd as referring to a city; in the view of Mukherjee, the name, whether Tdmr or Trmd refers to the rock on which the inscription was carved itself.{{sfn|Mukherjee|2000|p= 11}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Kaizer|2017|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33, 34]}} In 217 BC, a Palmyrene force led by Zabdibel joined the army of King Antiochus III in the Battle of Raphia which ended in a Seleucid defeat by Ptolemaic Egypt.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} In the middle of the Hellenistic era, Palmyra, formerly south of the al-Qubur wadi, began to expand beyond its northern bank.{{sfn|Zuchowska|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA231 231]}} By the late second century BC, the tower tombs in the Palmyrene Valley of Tombs and the city temples (most notably, the temples of Baalshamin, Al-lāt and the Hellenistic temple) began to be built.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA63 63]}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 276]}} A fragmentary inscription in Greek from the Temple of Bel's foundations mentions a king titled Epiphanes, a title used by the Seleucid kings.{{#tag:ref|The inscription is in bad shape but the letters' form, especially the four-branched sigma, indicate that it is one of the earliest inscriptions from Palmyra, dating to the beginning of the first century AD or the former first century BC. Seyrig concluded that it is futile to identify the king as the title Epiphanes was borne by many Seleucid kings, the last of them, Antiochus XII, died in 82 BC. Even then, according to Seyrig, the date is too high for the form of the letters. Seyrig suggested a king of Commagene or, more likely, a Parthian king.{{sfn|Seyrig|1939|pp= 322, 323}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Grainger|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=eqxipjRXCf4C&pg=PA759&lpg=PA759 759]}}

In 64 BC the Roman Republic conquered the Seleucid kingdom, and the Roman general Pompey established the province of Syria.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} Palmyra was left independent,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} trading with Rome and Parthia but belonging to neither.{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA90 90]}} The earliest known inscription in Palmyrene is dated to around 44 BC;{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA19 19]}} Palmyra was still a minor sheikhdom, offering water to caravans which occasionally took the desert route on which it was located.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} However, according to Appian Palmyra was wealthy enough for Mark Antony to send a force to conquer it in 41 BC.{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA90 90]}} The Palmyrenes evacuated to Parthian lands beyond the eastern bank of the Euphrates,{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA90 90]}} which they prepared to defend.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA19 19]}}

Autonomous Palmyrene region

Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire when it was conquered and paid tribute early in the reign of Tiberius, around 14 AD.{{#tag:ref|The attribution of Palmyra annexation to Tiberius was supported by Seyrig and became the most influential. However, other dates have been suggested ranging from as early as Pompey's era to as late as Vespasian's reign.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA34 34]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}}{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UR8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 34]}} The Romans included Palmyra in the province of Syria,{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA34 34]}} and defined the region's boundaries; a boundary marker laid by Roman governor Silanus was found {{convert|75|km}} northwest of the city at Khirbet el-Bilaas.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA41 41]}} A marker at the city's southwestern border was found at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}} and its eastern border extended to the Euphrates valley.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}} This region included numerous villages subordinate to the center such as al-Qaryatayn (35 other settlements have been identified by 2012).{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA124 124]}}{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}{{sfn|Curry|2012}} The Roman imperial period brought great prosperity to the city, which enjoyed a privileged status under the empire—retaining much of its internal autonomy,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} being ruled by a council,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127 127]}} and incorporating many Greek city-state (polis) institutions into its government.{{#tag:ref|The exact year for when Palmyra first made use of some Greek institutions is not known; the evidence that specifically identify Palmyra as a polis is not extensive, and the earliest known reference is an inscription dated to AD 51, written in Palmyrene and Greek, mentioning the "City of the Palmyrenes" in its Greek section.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122 122]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122 122]}}

The earliest Palmyrene text attesting a Roman presence in the city dates to 18 AD, when the Roman general Germanicus tried to develop a friendly relationship with Parthia; he sent the Palmyrene Alexandros to Mesene, a Parthian vassal kingdom.{{#tag:ref|Despite his Greek name, Alexandros was probably a native Palmyrene.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA226 226]}}
There is no evidence that Germanicus visited Palmyra.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA24 24]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA20 20]}} This was followed by the arrival of the Roman legion Legio X Fretensis the following year.{{#tag:ref|The legion was part of Germanicus' eastern campaign and was not stationed in the city as a garrison.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yH4MQy0wrbcC&pg=PA12 12]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dąbrowa|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yH4MQy0wrbcC&pg=PA12 12]}} Roman authority was minimal during the first century AD, although tax collectors were resident,{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA91 91]}} and a road connecting Palmyra and Sura was built in AD 75.{{#tag:ref|Commissioned by Traianus.{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA92 92]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA92 92]}} The Romans used Palmyrene soldiers,{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} but (unlike typical Roman cities) no local magistrates or prefects are recorded in the city.{{sfn|Elton|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA92 92]}} Palmyra saw intensive construction during the first century, including the city's first walled fortifications,{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} and the Temple of Bel (completed and dedicated in 32 AD).{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA323 323]}} During the first century Palmyra developed from a minor desert caravan station into a leading trading center,{{#tag:ref|The transformation already began in the first century BC.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA36 36]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} with Palmyrene merchants establishing colonies in surrounding trade centers.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA20 20]}}

Palmyrene trade reached its acme during the second century,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA22 22]}} aided by two factors; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes,{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} and protected by garrisons at major locations, including a garrison in Dura-Europos manned in 117 AD.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA145 145]}} The second was the Roman conquest of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} shifting control over southern trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula from the Nabataeans to Palmyra.{{#tag:ref|Although Palmyra benefiting from the annexation of Petra is a mainstream view, it should be noted that Palmyra's trade was mostly with the East, while Petra's trade counted on southern Arabia. In addition to the fact that Palmyra and Petra traded in different articles, hence the annexation of Petra might have not had a real effect on Palmyra's trade.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 125]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} In 129 Palmyra was visited by Hadrian, who named it "Hadriane Palmyra" and made it a free city.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 279]}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA21 21]}} Hadrian promoted Hellenism throughout the empire,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA25 25]}} and Palmyra's urban expansion was modeled on that of Greece.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA25 25]}} This led to new projects, including the theatre, the colonnade and the Temple of Nabu.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA25 25]}} Roman garrisons are first attested in Palmyra in 167, when the cavalry Ala I Thracum Herculiana was moved to the city.{{#tag:ref|The Ala I Thracum Herculiana was a milliaria.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2DmN0xH5-gC&pg=PA235 235]}} Generally, a milliaria consisted of a thousand horsemen.{{sfn|Sidebotham|Hense|Nouwens|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Eyemu-_MncwC&pg=PA354 354]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Raschke|1978|p= 878}} By the end of the second century, urban development diminished after the city's building projects peaked.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA26 26]}}

In the 190s, Palmyra was assigned to the province of Phoenice, newly created by the Severan dynasty.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA27 27]}} Toward the end of the second century, Palmyra began a steady transition from a traditional Greek city-state to a monarchy due to the increasing militarization of the city and the deteriorating economic situation;{{sfn|Sartre|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA512 512]}} the Severan ascension to the imperial throne in Rome played a major role in Palmyra's transition:{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA26 26]}}

• The Severan-led Roman–Parthian War, from 194 to 217, influenced regional security and affected the city's trade.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA28 28]}} Bandits began attacking caravans by 199, leading Palmyra to strengthen its military presence.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA28 28]}}
• The new dynasty favored the city,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA28 28]}} stationing the Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum garrison there by 206.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA60 60]}} Caracalla made Palmyra a colonia between 213 and 216, replacing many Greek institutions with Roman constitutional ones.{{sfn|Sartre|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA512 512]}} Severus Alexander, emperor from 222 to 235, visited Palmyra in 229.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA28 28]}}{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR33 33]}}

Palmyrene kingdom

The rise of the Sasanian Empire in Persia considerably damaged Palmyrene trade.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA176 176]}} The Sasanians disbanded Palmyrene colonies in their lands,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA176 176]}} and began a war against the Roman empire.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA29 29]}} In an inscription dated to 252 Odaenathus appears bearing the title of exarchos (lord) of Palmyra.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}} The weakness of the Roman empire and the constant Persian danger were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77]}} Odaenathus approached Shapur I of Persia to request him to guarantee Palmyrene interests in Persia, but was rebuffed.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}} In 260 the Emperor Valerian fought Shapur at the Battle of Edessa, but was defeated and captured.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}} One of Valerian's officers, Macrianus Major, his sons Quietus and Macrianus, and the prefect Balista rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus, usurping imperial power in Syria.{{sfn|Drinkwater|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA44 44]}}

Persian wars

Odaenathus formed an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants against Shapur.{{#tag:ref|No evidence exist for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}} According to the Augustan History, Odaenathus declared himself king prior to the battle.{{sfn|Dignas|Winter|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA159 159]}} The Palmyrene leader won a decisive victory near the banks of the Euphrates later in 260 forcing the Persians to retreat.{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p=139}} In 261 Odaenathus marched against the remaining usurpers in Syria, defeating and killing Quietus and Balista.{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p=144, 145}} As a reward, he received the title Imperator Totius Orientis ("Governor of the East") from Gallienus,{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67]}} and ruled Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia and Anatolia's eastern regions as the imperial representative.{{sfn|De Blois|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA35 35]}}{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA333 333]}} Palmyra itself remained officially part of the empire but Palmyrene inscriptions started to describe it as a "metrocolonia", indicating that the city's status was higher than normal Roman colonias.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 215]}} In practice, Palmyra shifted from a provincial city to a de facto allied kingdom.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 159]}}

In 262 Odaenathus launched a new campaign against Shapur,{{sfn|Ando|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2fTcCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 237]}} reclaiming the rest of Roman Mesopotamia (most importantly, the cities of Nisibis and Carrhae), sacking the Jewish city of Nehardea,{{#tag:ref|The Mesopotamian Jewish population was regarded by the Palmyrenes as loyal to the Persians.{{sfn|Dubnov|1968|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LLCXomFNU3cC&pg=PA151 151]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dubnov|1968|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LLCXomFNU3cC&pg=PA151 151]}}{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA171 171]}} and besieging the Persian capital Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Dignas|Winter|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA160 160]}}{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA172 172]}} Following his victory, the Palmyrene monarch assumed the title King of Kings.{{#tag:ref|The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as "King of Kings".{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA78 78]}} Known inscriptions dating to his reign address him as king. However, Odaenathus' son Hairan I, is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler and was assassinated during the same assassination incident that took the life of Odaenathus and it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32]}} Later, Odaenathus crowned his son Hairan I as co-King of Kings near Antioch in 263.{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA176 176]}} Although he did not take the Persian capital, Odaenathus drove the Persians out of all Roman lands conquered since the beginning of Shapur's wars in 252.{{sfn|De Blois|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA3 3]}} In a second campaign that took place in 266, the Palmyrene king reached Ctesiphon again; however, he had to leave the siege and move north, accompanied by Hairan I, to repel Gothic attacks on Asia Minor.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}} The king and his son were assassinated during their return in 267;{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77]}} according to the Augustan History and Joannes Zonaras, Odaenathus was killed by a cousin (Zonaras says nephew) named in the History as Maeonius.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA78 78]}} The Augustan History also says that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA78 78]}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 292]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA108 108]}} However, no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign.{{sfn|Brauer|1975|p= [https://books.google.com/books?&id=0mloAAAAMAAJ 163]}}

Odaenathus was succeeded by his son; the ten-year-old Vaballathus.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 299]}} Zenobia, the mother of the new king, was the de facto ruler and Vaballathus remained in her shadow while she consolidated her power.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 299]}} Gallienus dispatched his prefect Heraclian to command military operations against the Persians, but he was marginalized by Zenobia and returned to the West.{{sfn|De Blois|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA3 3]}} The queen was careful not to provoke Rome, claiming for herself and her son the titles held by her husband while guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 299]}} To protect the borders with Persia, Zenobia fortified different settlements on the Euphrates including the citadels of Halabiye and Zalabiye.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 91]}} Circumstantial evidence exist for confrontations with the Sasanians; probably in 269 Vaballathus took the title Persicus Maximus ("The great victor in Persia") and the title might be linked with an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to regain control of Northern Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 92]}}{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA267 267]}}

Palmyrene empire

Zenobia began her military career in the spring of 270, during the reign of Claudius Gothicus.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302 302]}} Under the pretext of attacking the Tanukhids, she conquered Roman Arabia.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302 302]}} This was followed in October by an invasion of Egypt,{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 303]}} ending with a Palmyrene victory and Zenobia's proclamation as queen of Egypt.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA304 304]}} Palmyra invaded Anatolia the following year, reaching Ankara and the pinnacle of its expansion.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80]}} The conquests were made behind a mask of subordination to Rome.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA179 179]}} Zenobia issued coins in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian, with Vaballathus depicted as king;{{#tag:ref|Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA179 179]}} since Aurelian was occupied with repelling insurgencies in Europe, he tolerated the Palmyrene coinage and encroachments.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA118 118]}} In late 271, Vaballathus and his mother assumed the titles of Augustus (emperor) and Augusta.{{#tag:ref|Scholarly is divided whether this was an act of independence declaration, or a usurpation of the Roman throne.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}}{{sfn|Whittow|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=GSmrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT154 77]}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180 180]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA179 179]}}

The following year, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA307 307]}} According to one account, Roman general Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra;{{#tag:ref|All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA308 308]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA308 308]}} Aurelian entered Issus and headed to Antioch, where he defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309 309]}} Zenobia was defeated again at the Battle of Emesa, taking refuge in Homs before quickly returning to her capital.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA310 310]}} When the Romans besieged Palmyra, Zenobia refused their order to surrender in person to the emperor.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80]}} She escaped east to ask the Persians for help, but was captured by the Romans; the city capitulated soon afterwards.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81]}}{{sfn|Drinkwater|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA52 52]}}

Later Roman and Byzantine periods

Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers, led by Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA313 313]}} In 273 Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of Septimius Apsaios,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180 180]}} declaring Antiochus (a relative of Zenobia) as Augustus.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA181 181]}} Aurelian marched against Palmyra, razing it to the ground and seizing the most valuable monuments to decorate his Temple of Sol.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81]}}{{sfn|Sartre|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA515 515]}} Palmyrene buildings were smashed, residents massacred and the Temple of Bel pillaged.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81]}}

Palmyra was reduced to a village and it largely disappeared from historical records of that period.{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA299 299]}} Aurelian repaired the Temple of Bel, and the Legio I Illyricorum was stationed in the city.{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA298 298]}} Shortly before 303 the Camp of Diocletian, a castra in the western part of the city, was built.{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA298 298]}} The {{convert|4|ha|acre|adj=on}} camp was a base for the Legio I Illyricorum,{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA298 298]}} which guarded the trade routes around the city.{{sfn|Pollard|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA299 299]}} Palmyra became a Christian city in the decades following its destruction by Aurelian.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA190 190]}} In late 527, Justinian I ordered the restoration of Palmyra's churches and public buildings to protect the empire against raids by Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=awCGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85]}}

Arab caliphates

Palmyra was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate after its 634 capture by the Muslim general Khalid ibn al-Walid, who took the city on his way to Damascus; an 18-day march by his army through the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Burns|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=poCBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99]}} By then Palmyra was limited to the Diocletian camp.{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA568 568]}} After the conquest, the city became part of Homs Province.{{sfn|Le Strange|1890|p= 36}}

Umayyad and early Abbasid periods

Palmyra prospered as part of the Umayyad Caliphate, and its population grew.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6ppv17CP6EC&pg=PA87 87]}} It was a key stop on the East-West trade route, with a large souq (market), built by the Umayyads,{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6ppv17CP6EC&pg=PA87 87]}}{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NdCTI5FqayAC&pg=PA31 31]}} who also commissioned part of the Temple of Bel as a mosque.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NdCTI5FqayAC&pg=PA31 31]}} During this period, Palmyra was a stronghold of the Banu Kalb tribe.{{sfn|Grabar|Holod|Knustad|Trousdale|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA156 156]}} After being defeated by Marwan II during a civil war in the caliphate, Umayyad contender Sulayman ibn Hisham fled to the Banu Kalb in Palmyra, but eventually pledged allegiance to Marwan in 744; Palmyra continued to oppose Marwan until the surrender of the Banu Kalb leader al-Abrash al-Kalbi in 745.{{sfn|Hawting|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tPsUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA624 624]}} That year, Marwan ordered the city's walls demolished.{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA568 568]}}{{sfn|Cobb|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA73 73]}}

In 750 a revolt, led by Majza'a ibn al-Kawthar and Umayyad pretender Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani, against the new Abbasid Caliphate swept across Syria;{{sfn|Cobb|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA47 47]}} the tribes in Palmyra supported the rebels.{{sfn|Cobb|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA48 48]}} After his defeat Abu Muhammad took refuge in the city, which withstood an Abbasid assault long enough to allow him to escape.{{sfn|Cobb|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA48 48]}}

Decentralization

Abbasid power dwindled during the 10th century, when the empire disintegrated and was divided among a number of vassals.{{sfn|Holt|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}} Most of the new rulers acknowledged the caliph as their nominal sovereign, a situation which continued until the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258.{{sfn|Loewe|1923|p=[https://archive.org/stream/cambridgemedieva04buryuoft#page/300/mode/2up 300]}}

In 955 Sayf al-Dawla, the Hamdanid prince of Aleppo, defeated the nomads near the city,{{sfn|Grabar|Holod|Knustad|Trousdale|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA11 11]}} and built a kasbah (fortress) in response to campaigns by the Byzantine emperors Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes.{{sfn|Grabar|Holod|Knustad|Trousdale|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA158 158]}} After the early-11th-century Hamdanid collapse, the region of Homs was controlled by the successor Mirdasid dynasty.{{sfn|Élisséeff|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA158 158]}} Earthquakes devastated Palmyra in 1068 and 1089.{{sfn|Speake|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA568 568]}}{{sfn|Fowden|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UC5v4mgERxwC&pg=PA184 184]}} In the 1070s Syria was conquered by the Seljuk Empire,{{sfn|Chamberlain|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ioTXW3316AC&pg=PA148 148]}} and in 1082, the district of Homs came under the control of the Arab lord Khalaf ibn Mula'ib.{{sfn|Élisséeff|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA158 158]}} The latter was a brigand and was removed and imprisoned in 1090 by the Seljuq sultan Malik-Shah I.{{sfn|Élisséeff|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA158 158]}}{{sfn|Ibn al-ʻAdīm|1988|p= 3354}} Khalaf's lands were given to Malik-Shah's brother, Tutush I,{{sfn|Ibn al-ʻAdīm|1988|p= 3354}} who gained his independence after his brother's 1092 death and established a cadet branch of the Seljuk dynasty in Syria.{{sfn|Hanne|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=nDVOR7jZYJEC&pg=PA135 135]}}

During the early 12th century Palmyra was ruled by Toghtekin, the Burid atabeg of Damascus, who appointed his nephew governor.{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA178 178]}} Toghtekin's nephew was killed by rebels, and the atabeg retook the city in 1126.{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA178 178]}} Palmyra was given to Toghtekin's grandson, Shihab-ud-din Mahmud,{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA178 178]}} who was replaced by governor Yusuf ibn Firuz when Shihab-ud-din Mahmud returned to Damascus after his father Taj al-Muluk Buri succeeded Toghtekin.{{sfn|Ibn al-Qalanisi|1983|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=O94rCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT378 386]}} The Burids transformed the Temple of Bel into a citadel in 1132, fortifying the city,{{sfn|Grabar|Holod|Knustad|Trousdale|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA161 161]}}{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA237 237]}} and transferring it to the Bin Qaraja family three years later in exchange for Homs.{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA237 237]}}

During the mid-12th century, Palmyra was ruled by the Zengid king Nur ad-Din Mahmud.{{sfn|Ibn 'Asakir|1995|p=121}} It became part of the district of Homs,{{sfn|Byliński|1999|p=161}} which was given as a fiefdom to the Ayyubid general Shirkuh in 1168 and confiscated after his death in 1169.{{sfn|Ehrenkreutz|1972|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G9jnL131V3UC&pg=PA46 46], [https://books.google.com/books?id=G9jnL131V3UC&pg=PA72 72]}} Homs region was conquered by the Ayyubid sultanate in 1174;{{sfn|Hamilton|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IySQoHdviNkC&pg=PA98 98]}} the following year, Saladin gave Homs (including Palmyra) to his cousin Nasir al-Din Muhammad as a fiefdom.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC&pg=PA51 51]}} After Saladin's death, the Ayyubid realm was divided and Palmyra was given to Nasir al-Din Muhammad's son Al-Mujahid Shirkuh II (who built the castle of Palmyra known as Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle around 1230).{{sfn|Major|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1m4fbJyQ4pkC&pg=PA62 62]}}{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 243]}} Five years earlier, Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi described Palmyra's residents as living in "a castle surrounded by a stone wall".{{sfn|Le Strange|1890|p= 541}}

Mamluk period

Palmyra was used as a refuge by Shirkuh II's grandson, al-Ashraf Musa, who allied himself with the Mongol king Hulagu Khan and fled after the Mongol defeat in the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC&pg=PA360 360]}} Al-Ashraf Musa asked the Mamluk sultan Qutuz for pardon and was accepted as a vassal.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC&pg=PA360 360]}} Al-Ashraf Musa died in 1263 without an heir, bringing the Homs district under direct Mamluk rule.{{sfn|Holt|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b2oeolaGUCEC&pg=PA38 38]}}

Al Fadl principality

The Al Fadl clan (a branch of the Tayy tribe) were loyal to the Mamluks, and in 1281, Prince Issa bin Muhanna of the Al Fadl was appointed lord of Palmyra by sultan Qalawun.{{sfn|Qīṭāz|2007|p= 788}} Issa was succeeded in 1284 by his son Muhanna bin Issa who was imprisoned by sultan al-Ashraf Khalil in 1293, and restored two years later by sultan al-Adil Kitbugha.{{sfn|al-Ziriklī|2002|p= 316}} Muhanna declared his loyalty to Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate in 1312 and was dismissed and replaced with his brother Fadl by sultan an-Nasir Muhammad.{{sfn|al-Ziriklī|2002|p= 316}} Although Muhanna was forgiven by an-Nasir and restored in 1317, he and his tribe were expelled in 1320 for his continued relations with the Ilkhanate,{{sfn|al-Ziriklī|2002|p= 317}} and he was replaced by tribal chief Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.{{sfn|Ibn Khaldūn|1988|p= 501}}

Muhanna was forgiven and restored by an-Nasir in 1330; he remained loyal to the sultan until his death in 1335, when he was succeeded by his son.{{sfn|Ibn Khaldūn|1988|p= 501}} Contemporary historian Ibn Fadlallah al-Omari described the city as having "vast gardens, flourishing trades and bizarre monuments".{{sfn|al-ʻUmarī|2002|p= 528}} The Al Fadl clan protected the trade routes and villages from Bedouin raids,{{sfn|Ibn Battuta|1997|p= 413}} raiding other cities and fighting among themselves.{{sfn|Ibn Khaldūn|1988|p= 502}} The Mamluks intervened militarily several times, dismissing, imprisoning or expelling its leaders.{{sfn|Ibn Khaldūn|1988|p= 502}} In 1400 Palmyra was attacked by Timur; the Fadl prince Nu'air escaped the battle and later fought Jakam, the sultan of Aleppo.{{sfn|al-ʻAsqalānī|1969|p= 350}} Nu'air was captured, taken to Aleppo and executed in 1406; this, according to Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, ended the Al Fadl clan's power.{{sfn|al-ʻAsqalānī|1969|p= 350}}{{sfn|Qīṭāz|2007|p= 788}}

Ottoman era and later periods

Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516,{{sfn|Petersen|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9A-EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 272]}} and Palmyra was a center of an administrative district (sanjak).{{#tag:ref|Named in Ottoman system "Salyane Sanjak", which is a Sanjak that had an annual allowance from the government, in contrast to the Khas Sanjaks, which yielded a land revenue.{{sfn|Çelebi|1834|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=66hCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA93 93]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Çelebi|1834|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=66hCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA93 93]}} During the Ottoman era, Palmyra was a small village in the courtyard of the Temple of Bel.{{sfn|Çelik|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=bY0ADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 176]}} After 1568 the Ottomans appointed the Lebanese prince Ali bin Musa Harfush as governor of Palmyra's sanjak,{{sfn|Winter|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA43 43]}} dismissing him in 1584 for treason.{{sfn|Winter|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA48 48]}} In 1630 Palmyra came under the authority of another Lebanese prince, Fakhr-al-Din II,{{sfn|Harris|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XwUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} who renovated Shirkuh II's castle (which became known as Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle).{{sfn|Burns|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 243]}}{{sfn|Byliński|1995|p=146}} The prince fell from grace with the Ottomans in 1633 and lost control of the village,{{sfn|Harris|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XwUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} which remained a separate sanjak until it was absorbed by Zor Sanjak in 1857.{{sfn|Peters|1910|p= [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabrit07chisrich#page/932/mode/2up 933]}} The village became home to an Ottoman garrison to control the Bedouin in 1867.{{sfn|Kennedy|Riley|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 143]}}

In 1918, as World War I was ending, the Royal Air Force built an airfield for two planes,{{#tag:ref|The British did not occupy the area and the local Bedouins agreed to protect the field.{{sfn|Grainger|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228 228]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Grainger|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228 228]}} and in November the Ottomans retreated from Zor Sanjak without a fight.{{#tag:ref|Neither the British, French or Arab armies attacked the Sanjak.{{sfn|Qaddūrī|2000|p= 38}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Qaddūrī|2000|p= 38}} The Syrian Emirate's army entered Deir ez-Zor on 4 December, and Zor Sanjak became part of Syria.{{sfn|Qaddūrī|2000|p= 40}} In 1919, as the British and French argued over the borders of the planned mandates,{{sfn|Grainger|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228 228]}} the British permanent military representative to the Supreme War Council Henry Wilson suggested adding Palmyra to the British mandate.{{sfn|Grainger|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228 228]}} However, the British general Edmund Allenby persuaded his government to abandon this plan.{{sfn|Grainger|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228 228]}} Syria (including Palmyra) became part of the French Mandate after Syria's defeat in the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920.{{sfn|Neep|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z7TbtGaAX8C&pg=PA28 28]}}

With Palmyra gaining importance in the French efforts to pacify the Syrian Desert, a base was constructed in the village near the Temple of Bel in 1921.{{sfn|Neep|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z7TbtGaAX8C&pg=PA142 142]}} In 1929, Henri Arnold Seyrig, began excavating the ruins and convinced the villagers to move to a new, French-built village next to the site.{{sfn|Darke|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA257 257]}} The relocation was completed in 1932;{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}} ancient Palmyra was ready for excavation as its villagers settled into the new village of Tadmur.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}{{sfn|Darke|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA257 257]}} During World War II, the Mandate came under the authority of Vichy France,{{sfn|Moubayed|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2UANAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46]}} who gave permission to Nazi Germany to use the airfield at Palmyra;{{sfn|Watson|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA80 80]}} forces of Free France, backed by British forces, invaded Syria in June 1941,{{sfn|Moubayed|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2UANAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46]}} and on 3 July 1941, the British took control over the city in the aftermath of a battle.{{sfn|Cave|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=-3y-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 55]}}

Syrian Civil War

As a result of the Syrian Civil War, Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants.{{sfn|Holmes|2013}} In 2013, the façade of the Temple of Bel sustained a large hole from mortar fire, and colonnade columns have been damaged by shrapnel.{{sfn|Holmes|2013}} According to Maamoun Abdulkarim, the Syrian Army positioned its troops in some archaeological-site areas,{{sfn|Holmes|2013}} while Syrian opposition fighters positioned themselves in gardens around the city.{{sfn|Holmes|2013}}

On 13 May 2015, ISIL launched an attack on the modern town of Tadmur, sparking fears that the iconoclastic group would destroy the adjacent ancient site of Palmyra.{{sfn|Mackay|2015}} On 21 May, some artifacts were transported from the Palmyra museum to Damascus for safekeeping; a number of Greco-Roman busts, jewelry, and other objects looted from the museum have been found on the international market.{{sfn|McGirk|2015}} ISIL forces entered Palmyra the same day.{{sfn|Shaheen|2015}} Local residents reported that the Syrian air force bombed the site on 13 June, damaging the northern wall close to the Temple of Baalshamin.{{sfn|Loveluck|2015}} During ISIL's occupation of the site, Palmyra's theatre was used as a place of public executions of their opponents and captives; videos were released by ISIL showing the killing of Syrian prisoners in front of crowds at the theatre.{{sfn|Saul|2015}}{{sfn|Carissimo|2015}} On 18 August, Palmyra's retired antiquities chief Khaled al-Asaad was beheaded by ISIL after being tortured for a month to extract information about the city and its treasures; al-Asaad refused to give any information to his captors.{{sfn|Withnall|2015}}

Syrian government forces supported by Russian airstrikes recaptured Palmyra on 27 March 2016 after intense fighting against ISIL fighters.{{sfn|Evans|2016}} According to initial reports, the damage to the archaeological site was less extensive than anticipated, with numerous structures still standing.{{sfn|Gambino|2016}} Following the recapture of the city, Russian de-mining teams began clearing mines planted by ISIL prior to their retreat.{{sfn|Makieh|2016}} Following heavy fighting, ISIL briefly reoccupied the city on 11 December 2016,{{sfn|Williams|2016}} prompting an offensive by the Syrian Army which retook the city on 2 March 2017.{{sfn|Dearden|2017}}

Government

From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom,{{sfn|Ball|2009|p= 56}} and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA125 125]}} During the first half of the first century AD, Palmyra incorporated some of the institutions of a Greek city (polis);{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122 122]}} the concept of citizenship (demos) appears in an inscription, dated to AD 10, describing the Palmyrenes as a community.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA126 126]}} In AD 74, an inscription mentions the city's boule (senate).{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122 122]}} The tribal role in Palmyra is debated; during the first century, four treasurers representing the four tribes seems to have partially controlled the administration but their role became ceremonial by the second century and power rested in the hands of the council.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA48 48]}}

The Palmyrene council consisted of about six hundred members of the local elite (such as the elders or heads of wealthy families or clans),{{#tag:ref|The number of 600 is hypothetical.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127 127]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127 127]}} representing the city's four-quarters.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA74 74]}} The council, headed by a president,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA128 128]}} managed civic responsibilities;{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127 127]}} it supervised public works (including the construction of public buildings), approved expenditures, collected taxes,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127 127]}} and appointed two archons (lords) each year.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA128 128]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 43]}} Palmyra's military was led by strategoi (generals) appointed by the council.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA129 129]}}{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145]}} Roman provincial authority set and approved Palmyra's tariff structure,{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA54 54]}} but the provincial interference in local government was kept minimal as the empire sought to ensure the continuous success of Palmyrene trade most beneficial to Rome.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA49 49]}} An imposition of direct provincial administration would have jeopardized Palmyra's ability to conduct its trading activities in the East, especially in Parthia.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA49 49]}}

With the elevation of Palmyra to a colonia around 213–216, the city ceased being subject to Roman provincial governors and taxes.{{sfn|Cline|Graham|2011|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1eRb5h7ATbsC&pg=PA271 271]}} Palmyra incorporated Roman institutions into its system while keeping many of its former ones.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA130 130]}} The council remained, and the strategos designated one of two annually-elected magistrates.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA130 130]}} This duumviri implemented the new colonial constitution,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA130 130]}} replacing the archons.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 43]}} Palmyra's political scene changed with the rise of Odaenathus and his family; an inscription dated to 251 describes Odaenathus' son Hairan I as "Ras" (lord) of Palmyra (exarch in the Greek section of the inscription) and another inscription dated to 252 describes Odaenathus with the same title.{{#tag:ref|Hairan I was described as "Ras" in 251 indicating that Odaenathus was promoted at that time as well.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}} Odaenathus was probably elected by the council as exarch,{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77]}} which was an unusual title in the Roman empire and was not part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}{{sfn|Mackay|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6rLDy6qqi0UC&pg=PA272 272]}} Whether Odaenathus' title indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA131 131]}} but the military role is more likely.{{sfn|Mennen|2011|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uZqQjkb07g8C&pg=PA224 224]}} By 257 Odaenathus was known as a consularis, possibly the legatus of the province of Phoenice.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA131 131]}} In 258 Odaenathus began extending his political influence, taking advantage of regional instability caused by Sasanian aggression;{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA131 131]}} this culminated in the Battle of Edessa,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}} Odaenathus' royal elevation and mobilization of troops, which made Palmyra a kingdom.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177 177]}}

The monarchy continued most civic institutions,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA131 131]}}{{sfn|Sivertsev|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=OfWUkVoHP7YC&pg=PA72 72]}} but the duumviri and the council were no longer attested after 264; Odaenathus appointed a governor for the city.{{sfn|Hartmann|2016|p= 64}} In the absence of the monarch, the city was administered by a viceroy.{{sfn|Cooke|1903|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=KwsIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA286 286]}} Although governors of the eastern Roman provinces under Odaenathus' control were still appointed by Rome, the king had overall authority.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} During Zenobia's rebellion, governors were appointed by the queen.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115]}} Not all Palmyrenes accepted the dominion of the royal family; a senator, Septimius Haddudan, appears in a later Palmyrene inscription as aiding Aurelian's armies during the 273 rebellion.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA60 60]}}{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81]}} After the Roman destruction of the city, Palmyra was ruled directly by Rome,{{sfn|Shahîd|1984|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&pg=PA15 15]}} and then by a succession of other rulers, including the Burids and Ayyubids,{{sfn|Gibb|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ds1vuFg8j0C&pg=PA178 178]}}{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC&pg=PA51 51]}} and subordinate Bedouin chiefs—primarily the Fadl family, who governed for the Mamluks.{{sfn|Irwin|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=axNbLoiLLgMC&pg=PA256 256]}}

Military

Due to its military character and efficiency in battle, Palmyra was described by Irfan Shahîd as the "Sparta among the cities of the Orient, Arab and other, and even its gods were represented dressed in military uniforms."{{sfn|Shahîd|1984|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&pg=PA38 38]}} Palmyra's army protected the city and its economy, helping extend Palmyrene authority beyond the city walls and protecting the countryside's desert trade routes.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA143 143]}} The city had a substantial military;{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}} Zabdibel commanded a force of 10,000 in the third century BC,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} and Zenobia led an army of 70,000 in the Battle of Emesa.{{sfn|Hartmann|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA371 371]}} Soldiers were recruited from the city and its territories, spanning several thousand square kilometers from the outskirts of Homs to the Euphrates valley.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}} Non-Palmyrene soldiers were also recruited; a Nabatean cavalryman is recorded in 132 as serving in a Palmyrene unit stationed at Anah.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} Palmyra's recruiting system is unknown; the city might have selected and equipped the troops and the strategoi led, trained and disciplined them.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}}

The strategoi were appointed by the council with the approval of Rome.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145]}} The royal army in the mid 3rd century AD was under the leadership of the monarch aided by generals,{{sfn|Potter|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=g4ZmqsyC5kEC&pg=PA162 162]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA122 122]}} and was modeled on the Sasanians in arms and tactics.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 86]}} The Palmyrenes were noted archers.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289]}} They used infantry while a heavily armored cavalry (clibanarii) constituted the main attacking force.{{#tag:ref|The Palmyrene army that invaded Egypt was mainly composed of clibanarii supported by archers.{{sfn|Graf|1989|p= 155}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Dixon|Southern|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ik9S7vNkQzkC&pg=PA76 76]}} Palmyra's infantry was armed with swords, lances and small round shields;{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} the clibanarii were fully armored (including their horses), and used heavy spears (kontos) {{convert|3.65|m}} long without shields.{{sfn|Dixon|Southern|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ik9S7vNkQzkC&pg=PA76 76]}}{{sfn|Fields|2008|p= 18}}

Relations with Rome

Citing the Palmyrenes' combat skills in large, sparsely populated areas, the Romans formed a Palmyrene auxilia to serve in the Imperial Roman army.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} Vespasian reportedly had 8,000 Palmyrene archers in Judea,{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} and Trajan established the first Palmyrene Auxilia in 116 (a camel cavalry unit, Ala I Ulpia dromedariorum Palmyrenorum).{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA27 27]}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2011|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&pg=PA258 258]}} Palmyrene units were deployed throughout the Roman Empire,{{#tag:ref|A Palmyrene monument was discovered near Newcastle in England, it was set by a Palmyrene named Baratas, who was either a soldier or a camp follower.{{sfn|Purcell|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=YkgTbON-GGUC&pg=PA80 80]}}|group=note}} serving in Dacia late in Hadrian's reign,{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA52 52]}} and at El Kantara in Numidia and Moesia under Antoninus Pius.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA52 52]}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA181 181]}} During the late second century Rome formed the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum, which was stationed in Dura-Europos.{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA139 139]}}

Religion

Palmyra's gods were primarily part of the northwestern Semitic pantheon, with the addition of gods from the Mesopotamian and Arab pantheons.{{sfn|Levick|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BjkfKsCttrkC&pg=PA15 15]}} The city's chief pre-Hellenistic deity was called Bol,{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR1 1]}} an abbreviation of Baal (a northwestern Semitic honorific).{{sfn|Drijvers|1980|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=69YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46 46]}} The Babylonian cult of Bel-Marduk influenced the Palmyrene religion and by 217 BC the chief deity's name was changed to Bel.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR1 1]}} This did not indicate the replacing of the northwestern Semitic Bol with a Mesopotamian deity, but was a mere change in the name.{{sfn|Drijvers|1980|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=69YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46 46]}}

Second in importance after the supreme deity,{{sfn|Waardenburg|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=rMmsS7tr1AEC&pg=PA33 33]}} were over sixty ancestral gods of the Palmyrene clans.{{sfn|Waardenburg|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=rMmsS7tr1AEC&pg=PA33 33]}}{{sfn|Dirven|1998|p= 83}} Palmyra had unique deities,{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345 345]}} such as the god of justice and Efqa's guardian Yarhibol,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA64 64]}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA66 66]}} the sun god Malakbel,{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR52 52]}} and the moon god Aglibol.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR52 52]}} Palmyrenes worshiped regional deities, including the greater Levantine gods Astarte, Baal-hamon, Baalshamin and Atargatis;{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345 345]}} the Babylonian gods Nabu and Nergal,{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345 345]}} and the Arab Azizos, Arsu, Šams and Al-lāt.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345 345]}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA64 64]}}

The deities worshiped in the countryside were depicted as camel or horse riders and bore Arab names.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} The nature of those deities is uncertain as only names are known, most importantly Abgal.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} The Palmyrene pantheon included ginnaye (some were given the designation "Gad"),{{sfn|Colledge|1986|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=lSZfkzVk3GMC&pg=PA6 6]}} a group of lesser deities popular in the countryside,{{sfn|Waardenburg|1984|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=mQnv_Wh3gCwC&pg=PA273 273]}} who were similar to the Arab jinn and the Roman genius.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR77 77]}} Ginnaye were believed to have the appearance and behavior of humans, similar to Arab jinn.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR77 77]}} Unlike jinn, however, the ginnaye could not possess or injure humans.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR77 77]}} Their role was similar to the Roman genius: tutelary deities who guarded individuals and their caravans, cattle and villages.{{sfn|Waardenburg|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=rMmsS7tr1AEC&pg=PA33 33]}}{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR77 77]}}

Although the Palmyrenes worshiped their deities as individuals, some were associated with other gods.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA159 159]}} Bel had Astarte-Belti as his consort, and formed a triple deity with Aglibol and Yarhibol (who became a sun god in his association with Bel).{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA64 64]}}{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} Malakbel was part of many associations,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA159 159]}} pairing with Gad Taimi and Aglibol,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA160 160]}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA160 160]}} and forming a triple deity with Baalshamin and Aglibol.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA161 161]}} Palmyra hosted an Akitu (spring festival) each Nisan.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA146 146], [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA147 147]}} Each of the city's four-quarters had a sanctuary for a deity considered ancestral to the resident tribe; Malakbel and Aglibol's sanctuary was in the Komare quarter.{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR36 36]}} The Baalshamin sanctuary was in the Ma'zin quarter, the Arsu sanctuary in the Mattabol quarter,{{sfn|Teixidor|1979|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR36 36]}} and the Atargatis sanctuary in the fourth tribe's quarter.{{#tag:ref|The fourth tribe's name is not certain but most likely the Mita.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA161 161]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA161 161]}}

The priests of Palmyra were selected from the city's leading families,{{sfn|Kaizer|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kTxg2_vRM1YC&pg=PA179 179]}} and are recognized in busts through their headdresses which have the shape of a polos adorned with laurel wreath or other tree made of bronze among other elements.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22 22]}} The high priest of Bel's temple was the highest religious authority and headed the clergy of priests who were organized into collegia each headed by a higher priest.{{sfn|Wright|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA296 296]}} The personnel of Efqa spring's sanctuary dedicated to Yarhibol belonged to a special class of priests as they were oracles.{{sfn|Wright|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA296 296]}} Palmyra's paganism was replaced with Christianity as the religion spread across the Roman Empire, and a bishop was reported in the city by 325.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA190 190]}} Although most temples became churches, the Temple of Al-lāt was destroyed in 385 at the order of Maternus Cynegius (the eastern praetorian prefect).{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA190 190]}} After the Muslim conquest in 634 Islam gradually replaced Christianity, and the last known bishop of Palmyra was consecrated in 818.{{sfn|Shahîd|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=BEvEV9OVzacC&pg=PA439 439]}}

Malakbel and the Roman Sol Invictus

In 274, following his victory over Palmyra, Aurelian dedicated a large temple of Sol Invictus in Rome;{{sfn|Hijmans|2009|p= 484}} most scholars consider Aurelian's Sol Invictus to be of Syrian origin,{{sfn|Hijmans|2009|p= 485}} either a continuation of emperor Elagabalus cult of Sol Invictus Elagabalus, or Malakbel of Palmyra.{{sfn|Halsberghe|1972|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8tIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA156 156]}} The Palmyrene deity was commonly identified with the Roman god Sol and he had a temple dedicated for him on the right bank of the Tiber since the second century.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 196]}} Also, he bore the epithet Invictus and was known with the name Sol "Sanctissimus", the latter was an epithet Aurelian bore on an inscription from Capena.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 196]}}

The position of the Palmyrene deity as Aurelian's Sol Invictus is inferred from a passage by Zosimus reading: "and the magnificent temple of the sun he (i.e. Aurelian) embellished with votive gifts from Palmyra, setting up statues of Helios and Bel".{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA174 174]}} Three deities from Palmyra exemplified solar features: Malakbel, Yarhibol and Šams, hence the identification of the Palmyrene Helios appearing in Zosimus' work with Malakbel.{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA174 174]}} Some scholars criticize the notion of Malakbel's identification with Sol Invictus; according to Gaston Halsberghe, the cult of Malakbel was too local for it to become an imperial Roman god and Aurelian's restoration of Bel's temple and sacrifices dedicated to Malakbel were a sign of his attachment to the sun god in general and his respect to the many ways in which the deity was worshiped.{{sfn|Halsberghe|1972|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8tIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 157]}} Richard Stoneman suggested another approach in which Aurelian simply borrowed the imagery of Malakbel to enhance his own solar deity.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA185 185]}} The relation between Malakbel and Sol Invictus can not be confirmed and will probably remain unresolved.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 196]}}

Economy

Palmyra's economy before and at the beginning of the Roman period was based on agriculture, pastoralism, and trade;{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} the city served as a rest station for the caravans which sporadically crossed the desert.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} By the end of the first century BC, the city had a mixed economy based on agriculture, pastoralism, taxation,{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA51 51]}}{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA57 57]}} and, most importantly, the caravan trade.{{sfn|Howard|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA158 158]}} Taxation was an important source of revenue for the Palmyrene government.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA57 57]}} Caravaneers paid taxes in the building known as the Tariff Court,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}} where a tax law dating to AD 137 was exhibited.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2011|p= 420}}{{sfn|Rostovtzeff.|1932|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=r68SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} The law regulated the tariffs paid by the merchants for goods sold at the internal market or exported from the city.{{#tag:ref|Richard Stoneman proposes that the law regulated taxes imposed on goods destined for the internal market and did not cover the transit trade.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA58 58]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}}{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA70 70]}}

The classicist Andrew M. Smith II suggested that most land in Palmyra was owned by the city, which collected grazing taxes.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA51 51]}} The oasis had about {{convert|1000|ha|acre}} of irrigable land,{{sfn|Métral|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iwxeHaKUGFMC&pg=PA130 130]}} which surrounded the city.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}} The Palmyrenes constructed an extensive irrigation system in the northern mountains that consisted of reservoirs and channels to capture and store the occasional rainfall.{{sfn|Curry|2012}} The most notable irrigation work is Harbaqa Dam which was constructed in the late first century AD;{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA163 163]}} it is located {{convert|48|km|abbr=on}} southwest of the city and can collect {{convert|140000|m3}} of water.{{sfn|Hoffmann-Salz|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HvApCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA242 242]}} The countryside was intensively planted with olive, fig, pistachio and barley.{{sfn|Curry|2012}} However, agriculture could not support the population and food was imported.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}}

After Palmyra's destruction in 273, it became a market for villagers and nomads from the surrounding area.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA189 189]}} The city regained some of its prosperity during the Umayyad era, indicated by the discovery of a large Umayyad souq in the colonnaded street.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XdFqgSBTYeYC&pg=PA54-IA30 296]}} Palmyra was a minor trading center until its destruction in 1400;{{sfn|Robinson|1946|p= 10}} according to Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi, Timur's men took 200,000 sheep,{{sfn|Ibn Arabshah|1986|p= 296}} and the city was reduced into a settlement on the desert border whose inhabitants herded and cultivated small plots for vegetables and corn.{{sfn|Addison|1838|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zy3NgMGcu0C&pg=PA333 333]}}

Commerce

If the Laghman II inscription in Afghanistan is referring to Palmyra, then the city's role in Central Asian overland trade was prominent as early as the third century BC.{{sfn|Kaizer|2017|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} During the first centuries AD, Palmyra's main trade route ran east to the Euphrates where it connected at the city of Hīt.{{sfn|McLaughlin|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=nTEdCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 97]}} The route then ran south along the river toward the port of Charax Spasinu on the Persian Gulf, where Palmyrene ships traveled back and forth to India.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 133]}} Goods were imported from India, China and Transoxiana,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283]}} and exported west to Emesa (or Antioch) then the Mediterranean ports,{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA19 19]}} from which they were distributed throughout the Roman Empire.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 133]}} In addition to the usual route some Palmyrene merchants used the Red Sea,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283]}} probably as a result of the Roman–Parthian Wars.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA111 111]}} Goods were carried overland from the seaports to a Nile port, and then taken to the Egyptian Mediterranean ports for export.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA111 111]}} Inscriptions attesting a Palmyrene presence in Egypt date to the reign of Hadrian.{{sfn|Hourani|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDh2KKSlQg4C&pg=PA34 34]}}

Since Palmyra was not on the main trading route (which followed the Euphrates),{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} the Palmyrenes secured the desert route passing their city.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} They connected it to the Euphrates valley, providing water and shelter.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} The Palmyrene route connected the Silk Road with the Mediterranean,{{sfn|Hoffmann-Salz|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jfApCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} and was used almost exclusively by the city's merchants,{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} who maintained a presence in many cities, including Dura-Europos in 33 BC,{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA36 36]}} Babylon by AD 19, Seleucia by AD 24,{{sfn|Dirven|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA20 20]}} Dendera, Coptos,{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137 137]}} Bahrain, the Indus River Delta, Merv and Rome.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}

The caravan trade depended on patrons and merchants.{{sfn|Howard|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA159 159]}} Patrons owned the land on which the caravan animals were raised, providing animals and guards for the merchants.{{sfn|Howard|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA159 159]}} The lands were located in the numerous villages of the Palmyrene countryside.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} Although merchants used the patrons to conduct business, their roles often overlapped and a patron would sometimes lead a caravan.{{sfn|Howard|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA159 159]}} Commerce made Palmyra and its merchants among the wealthiest in the region.{{sfn|Howard|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA158 158]}} Some caravans were financed by a single merchant,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}} such as Male' Agrippa (who financed Hadrian's visit in 129 and the 139 rebuilding of the Temple of Bel).{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 279]}} The primary income-generating trade good was silk, which was exported from the East to the West.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA59 59]}} Other exported goods included jade, muslin, spices, ebony, ivory and precious stones.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}} For its domestic market Palmyra imported variety of goods including slaves, prostitutes, olive oil, dyed goods, myrrh and perfume.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA58 58]}}{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}

Excavations

Palmyra was visited by such travelers as Pietro Della Valle (between 1616 and 1625), Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (in 1638), and many Swedish and German explorers.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA7 7]}} Its first scholarly description appeared in a 1696 book by Abednego Seller.{{sfn|Terpak|Bonfitto|2017}} In 1751, an expedition led by Robert Wood and James Dawkins studied Palmyra's architecture.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA7 7]}} French artist and architect Louis-François Cassas conducted an extensive survey of the city's monuments in 1785, publishing over a hundred drawings of Palmyra's civic buildings and tombs.{{sfn|Terpak|Bonfitto|2017}} Visits by travelers and antiquarians continued, including one made by Lady Hester Stanhope in 1813,{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA7 7]}} and another by Lady Strangford and artist Carl Haag in 1859.{{sfn|Schmidt|1976|p= 193}} Palmrya was photographed for the first time in 1864 by Louis Vignes.{{sfn|Terpak|Bonfitto|2017}}

In 1882, the "Palmyrene Tariff", an inscribed stone slab from AD 137 in Greek and Palmyrene detailing import and export taxation, was discovered by prince Semyon Semyonovich Abamelik-Lazarev in the Tariff Court.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2011|p= 415}} It has been described by historian John F. Matthews as "one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire".{{sfn|Healey|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Op8VDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}} In 1901, the slab was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to the Russian Tsar and is now in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.{{sfn|Gawlikowski|2011|p= 416}}

Palmyra's first excavations were conducted in 1902 by Otto Puchstein and in 1917 by Theodor Wiegand.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}} In 1929, French general director of antiquities of Syria and Lebanon Henri Arnold Seyrig began large-scale excavation of the site;{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}} interrupted by World War II, it resumed soon after the war's end.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}} Seyrig started with the Temple of Bel in 1929 and between 1939 and 1940 he excavated the Agora.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} Daniel Schlumberger conducted excavations in the Palmyrene northwest countryside in 1934 and 1935 where he studied different local sanctuaries in the Palmyrene villages.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} From 1954 to 1956, a Swiss expedition organized by UNESCO excavated the Temple of Baalshamin.{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}} Since 1958, the site has been excavated by the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities,{{sfn|Darke|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA257 257]}} and Polish expeditions led by many archaeologists including Kazimierz Michałowski (until 1980) and Michael Gawlikowski (until 2011).{{sfn|Stoneman|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA12 12]}}{{sfn|Michalska|2016}} The stratigraphic sounding beneath the Temple of Bel was conducted in 1967 by Robert du Mesnil du Buisson,{{sfn|Bielińska|1997|p= 44}} who also discovered the Temple of Baal-hamon in the 1970s.{{sfn|Downey|1977|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA21 21]}}

The Polish expedition concentrated its work on the Camp of Diocletian while the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities excavated the Temple of Nabu.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} Most of the hypogea were excavated jointly by the Polish expedition and the Syrian Directorate,{{sfn|Downey|1996|p= 469}} while the area of Efqa was excavated by Jean Starcky and Jafar al-Hassani.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} The Palmyrene irrigation system was discovered in 2008 by Jørgen Christian Meyer who researched the Palmyrene countryside through ground inspections and satellite images.{{sfn|Curry|2012}} Most of Palmyra still remains unexplored especially the residential quarters in the north and south while the necropolis has been thoroughly excavated by the Directorate and the Polish expedition.{{sfn|Drijvers|1976|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} Excavation expeditions left Palmyra in 2011 due to the Syrian Civil War.{{sfn|Curry|2012}}

In 1980, the historic site including the necropolis outside the walls was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO.{{sfn|Cameron|Rössler|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=WdYoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105]}} In November 2010 the Austrian media manager Helmut Thoma admitted looting a Palmyrene grave in 1980, stealing architectural pieces for his home;{{sfn|Kaiser|2010}} German and Austrian archaeologists protested against the theft.{{sfn|Wessel|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=z5KyCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85]}}

See also

• Aureliano in Palmira
• Crisis of the Third Century
• Palmyrene (Unicode block)
• Thirty Tyrants (Roman)
• Septimius Worod
• Zabdas

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

• {{cite book|first=Charles Greenstreet|last=Addison|title=Damascus and Palmyra: a journey to the East|volume=2|year= 1838|publisher= Richard Bentley|OCLC=833460514|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1= Khaled|last1=al-Asaad|first2=Françoise Briquel|last2=Chatonnet|first3=Jean-Baptiste|last3=Yon|editor-first=Eleonora|editor-last=Cussini|title=A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers|chapter= Reflections on the tokens found in the Arsu temple|year=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12418-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī Ibn Ḥajar|last=al-ʻAsqalānī|editor-first=Ḥasan|editor-last=Ḥabashī|title= Inbāʼ al-ghumr bi-anbāʼ al-ʻumr|language= ar|origyear= 1446|year=1969|publisher=Majlis al-Aʻlá lil-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah: Lajnat Iḥyāʼ al-Turāth al-Islāmī|volume= 2|OCLC=22742875|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last1=al-Maqdissi|first1=Michel|year= 2010|title=Matériel pour l'Étude de la Ville en Syrie (Deuxième Partie): Urban Planning in Syria during the SUR (Second Urban Revolution) (Mid-third Millennium BC)|journal=al-Rāfidān (Journal of Western Asiatic Studies)|publisher=Institulte for Cultural studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University|volume=Special Issue|ISSN=0285-4406|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá Ibn Faḍl Allāh|last=al-ʻUmarī|title=Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār (مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار)|editor-first=ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yaḥyá|editor-last=al-Sarīḥī|language= ar|origyear= 1348|year=2002|publisher=Abū Dhabī : al-Majmaʻ al-Thaqāfī|volume= 3|OCLC=4771042475|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Khayr al-Dīn|last=al-Ziriklī|title=al-Aʻlām : qāmūs tarājim li-ashhar al-rijāl wa-al-nisāʼ min al-ʻArab wa-al-mustaʻribīn wa-al-mustashriqīn|language= ar|origyear= 1927|year=2002|publisher=Dār al-ʻIlm lil-Malāyīn|volume= 7|edition= 15|OCLC=78683884|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Clifford |last=Ando|title=Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century| year=2012| publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-5534-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World|first=Nathanael J.|last= Andrade|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2013|isbn= 978-1-107-01205-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Jere L.|last=Bacharach|editor-first=Gülru|editor-last=Necipoğlu|chapter=Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage|title=Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World|volume=13|year= 1996|publisher= Brill|ISSN=0732-2992|isbn=978-90-04-25933-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Baghdadi|first=George|publisher=CBS News|date= 17 May 2015|title=Syria claims to have pushed ISIS from Palmyra|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/syria-isis-ousted-palmyra-unesco-world-heritage/|accessdate=2 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Warwick |last=Ball|title= Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire |origyear= 1999|year=2002 | publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-82387-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Warwick|last1= Ball|title=Out of Arabia: Phoenicians, Arabs, and the Discovery of Europe|year= 2009|publisher= East & West Publishing|series=Asia in Europe and the making of the West|volume=1|isbn=978-1-56656-801-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Barnard|first1=Anne|first2=Hwaida|last2=Saad|publisher=The New York Times|date= 31 August 2015|title=Palmyra Temple Was Destroyed by ISIS, U.N. Confirms|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/01/world/middleeast/isis-militants-severely-damage-temple-of-baal-in-palmyra.html?_r=0|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Rough Guide to Syria|first1=Andrew|last1=Beattie|first2=Timothy|last2= Pepper|publisher=Rough Guides|year=2001|edition= 2|isbn=978-1-85828-718-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Structuralist Studies in Arabic Linguistics: Charles A. Ferguson's Papers, 1954–1994|first1=R. Kirk|last1=Belnap|first2=Niloofar|last2=Haeri|publisher=Brill|year=1997|series=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics|volume= 24|isbn=978-90-04-10511-9|ISSN=0081-8461|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1= Shimshon |last1=Ben-Yehoshua|first2=Carole |last2=Borowitz|first3=Lumír Ondøej |last3=Hanus|editor-first=Jules |editor-last=Janick|title= Horticultural Reviews|series= Horticultural Reviews|chapter= Spices: Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea|volume= 39|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-10058-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Art of the Ancient Near East: A Resource for Educators|first1= Kim|last1=Benzel|first2=Sarah B.|last2=Graff|first3=Yelena |last3=Rakic|first4=Edith W.|last4=Watts|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=2010|isbn=978-1-58839-358-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Aramaic Language, Its Distribution and Subdivisions|first=Klaus|last=Beyer|translator-first=John F.|translator-last=Healey|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|origyear= 1984|year=1986|isbn=978-3-525-53573-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Bielińska|first=Dorota|year= 1997|journal=Studia Palmyreńskie|title=Small finds from pre-Classical Palmyra|publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw|volume= 10|ISSN= 0081-6787|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284|first=George C.|last= Brauer|publisher=Noyes Press|year= 1975|isbn= 978-0-8155-5036-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Palmyra|first=Iain|last=Browning|publisher=Noyes Press|year=1979|isbn=978-0-8155-5054-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title= The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire|first= Trevor|last=Bryce|publisher= Routledge|year=2009|isbn= 978-1-134-15907-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Trevor|last=Bryce|title= Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History| year=2014| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100292-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Hellenistic and Roman Greece as a Sociolinguistic Area|first=Vít|last=Bubeník|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|year=1989|volume=57|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory Series|isbn=978-9-027-23551-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Monuments of Syria: A Guide|first=Ross|last=Burns|publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2009|origyear= 1992|edition=revised |isbn=978-0-85771-489-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Damascus: A History|first=Ross|last=Burns|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|origyear=2005|isbn=978-1-134-48849-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Busta|first=Hallie|publisher=The Journal of the American Institute of Architects|date= 23 October 2015|title=An Open-Source Project to Rebuild Palmyra|url=http://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/an-open-source-project-to-rebuild-palmyra_o|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title= Roman Syria and the Near East|first=Kevin|last=Butcher|publisher=The British Museum Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7141-2235-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Byliński|first=Janusz|year= 1995|title=Palmyra: Arab Castle|journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean|publisher=Warsaw University Press|volume=7|editor1-first=Michał|editor1-last=Gawlikowski|editor2-first=Wiktor A.|editor2-last=Daszewski|ISSN= 1234-5415|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|first=Janusz|last=Byliński|year=1999|title=Qal'at Shirkuh at Palmyra: A Medieval Fortress Reinterpreted|journal=Bulletin d'études orientales|publisher=l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient|volume=51|ISSN=2077-4079|isbn=978-2-901315-56-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Christina|last1=Cameron|first2=Mechtild|last2=Rössler|title=Many Voices, One Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Convention|origyear=2013|year= 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-10102-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Carissimo|first=Justin|publisher=The Independent|date= 4 July 2015|title=Isis propaganda video shows 25 Syrian soldiers executed by teenage militants in Palmyra|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-propaganda-video-shows-20-syrian-government-soldiers-executed-in-palmyra-by-young-islamists-10366533.html|accessdate=4 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Syria & Lebanon|first1=Terry |last1=Carter|first2=Lara|last2= Dunston|first3=Amelia |last3=Thomas|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2008|isbn=978-1-74104-609-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Francesca|last=Casule|translator1-first=Paula Elise|translator1-last=Boomsliter|translator2-first=Richard|translator2-last=Dunbar|title=Art and History: Syria|year= 2008|publisher=Casa Editrice Bonechi|isbn=978-88-476-0119-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Battle Honours of the Second World War 1939-1945 and Korea 1950-1953: British and Colonial Regiments|first1=Terry |last1=Cave|origyear=2003|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|year=2012|isbn=978-1-781-51379-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Evliya|last1=Çelebi|title=Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth Century|volume=1|translator-first=Freiherr|translator-last=von Hammer-Purgstall|origyear= 1681|year=1834|publisher=Oriental Translation Fund|OCLC=754957231|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=About Antiquities: Politics of Archaeology in the Ottoman Empire|first= Zeynep|last=Çelik|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4773-1061-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Michael|last=Chamberlain|chapter=Military Patronage States and the Political economy of the Frontier, 1000–1250|editor-first= Youssef M.|editor-last=Choueiri|title=A Companion to the History of the Middle East|year= 2005|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-1-4051-5204-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Roman World|first= Victor|last=Chapot|editor-first=Charles Kay|editor-last=Ogden|translator-first=Edward Adams|translator-last=Parker|publisher=Routledge|series=The History of Civilization|origyear=1928|year=2014|isbn=978-1-134-73140-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Local Etymology: A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names|first= Richard Stephen|last=Charnock|publisher= Houlston and Wright|year=1859|OCLC=4696115|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Eric H.|last1=Cline|first2=Mark W.|last2=Graham|title=Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam|year= 2011|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88911-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880|first=Paul M.|last=Cobb|publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2001|isbn=978-0-7914-4880-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Malcolm Andrew Richard|last1=Colledge|title=The Art of Palmyra|year= 1976|publisher=Thames & Hudson|series=Studies in Ancient Art and Archaeology|volume=4|isbn=978-0-89158-617-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Parthian Period|first= Malcolm Andrew Richard|last1=Colledge|editor1-first=Theodoor Pieter|editor1-last=van Baaren|editor2-first=Lourens Peter|editor2-last=van den Bosch|editor3-first=Hans Gerhard|editor3-last=Kippenberg|editor4-first=Lammert|editor4-last=Leertouwer|editor5-first= Fred|editor5-last=Leemhuis|editor6-first= Henk|editor6-last=te Velde|editor7-first=Hans Antonius|editor7-last=Witte|editor8-first=H.|editor8-last=Buning|publisher= Brill|year= 1986|series=Iconography of Religions. Section XIV: Iran (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen)|volume=3|isbn=978-90-04-07115-5|ISSN=0169-9873|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Malcolm Andrew Richard|last1=Colledge|first2=Josef|last2=Wiesehöfer|editor1-first=Simon|editor1-last=Hornblower|editor2-first=Antony|editor2-last=Spawforth|editor3-first=Esther|editor3-last=Eidinow|title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization|chapter=Palmyra|edition=2|origyear=1998|year= 2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-870677-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=George Albert|last1= Cooke|title=A Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions: Moabite, Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene, Jewish|year=1903|publisher=The Clarendon Press|isbn=978-5-87188-785-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Improbable Women: Five who Explored the Middle East|first=William W.|last=Cotterman|publisher=Syracuse University Press|year=2013|series= Contemporary Issues in the Middle East|isbn=978-0-8156-5231-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Byzantine Shops at Sardis|first=J. Stephens |last=Crawford|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1990|series= Monograph / Archaeological Exploration of Sardis|volume= 9|ISSN=0066-5975|isbn=978-0-674-08968-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Curry|first=Andrew|publisher=National Geographic News|date= 20 July 2012|title=Mystery of Lost Roman City Solved: Ancients Greened the Desert?|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120717-palmyra-roman-city-syria-science-farming-world-ancient/|accessdate=11 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|first=Edward|last=Dąbrowa|year= 1979|title=Les Troupes Auxiliaires de L'armée Romaine en Syrie au Ier Siècle de Notre ère|journal=Dialogues d'histoire ancienne|series= Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon (Volume 239)|publisher=les Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté|volume=5|ISSN= 0755-7256|isbn=978-2-251-60239-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Edward|last=Dąbrowa|title=Legio X Fretensis. A Prosopographical Study of its Officers (I–III c. AD)|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|series=Historia Einzelschriften|volume=66|year= 1993|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-05809-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Syria|first=Diana|last=Darke|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|year=2006|isbn=978-1-84162-162-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Syria|first=Diana|last=Darke|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|edition=2|origyear=2006|year=2010|isbn=978-1-84162-314-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Dearden|first=Lizzie|publisher=The Independent|date= 2 March 2017|title=Isis driven out of ancient Syrian city of Palmyra for second time|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html|accessdate=4 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus|first= Lukas|last=De Blois|publisher= Brill|series=Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society: Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society|volume=7|year=1976|isbn= 978-90-04-04508-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|first=Leon |last=De Laborde|year= 1837|title=Journey Through Arabia Petraea, To Mount Sinai, And The Excavated City Of Petra, The Edom Of The Prophecies 1836|journal=The Quarterly Christian Spectator|publisher= New Haven : A. H. Maltby|volume=9|OCLC= 176276638|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals|first1=Beate |last1= Dignas|first2=Engelbert |last2= Winter|publisher=Cambridge University Press|origyear=2001|year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-84925-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Lucinda |last=Dirven|editor1-first=Gerrie|editor1-last=ter Haar|chapter=The Palmyrene diaspora in East and West : a Syrian community in the diaspora in the Roman period|title=Strangers and sojourners: religious communities in the diaspora|year= 1998|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-0663-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Lucinda |last=Dirven|title=The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria|series=Religions in the Graeco-Roman World|volume= 138|year=1999|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11589-7|ISSN=0927-7633|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Karen R.|last1=Dixon|first2=Patricia|last2=Southern|title=The Roman Cavalry|year=2005|origyear= 1992|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-11407-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Susan|last=Downey|editor1-first=Ronald S.|editor1-last=Stroud|editor2-first=Philip|editor2-last= Levine|title=California Studies in Classical Antiquity|volume= 9|chapter= "Temples a Escaliers": The Dura Evidence|year=1977|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-09565-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|first=Susan |last=Downey|year= 1996|title= Funerary sculptures of Palmyra; Review of A. Sadurska and A. Bounni, Les sculptures funéraires de Palmyre|journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology|volume=9|ISSN= 1047-7594|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Religion of Palmyra|first= Hendrik Jan Willem|last= Drijvers|editor1-first=Theodoor Pieter|editor1-last=van Baaren|editor2-first=Lammert|editor2-last=Leertouwer|editor3-first= Fred|editor3-last=Leemhuis|editor4-first=H.|editor4-last=Buning|publisher= Brill|year= 1976|series=Iconography of Religions. Section XV Mesopotamia and the Near East (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen)|isbn=978-0-585-36013-3|OCLC=714982019|ISSN=0169-8036|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Cults and Beliefs at Edessa|first=Hendrik Jan Willem|last= Drijvers|publisher=Brill|year= 1980|series=Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain|volume=82|isbn= 978-90-04-06050-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Hendrik Jan Willem|last= Drijvers|editor1-first=Hans G.|editor1-last=Kippenberg|editor2-first=Lourens P.|editor2-last=van den Bosch|editor3-first=Lammert|editor3-last=Leertouwer|editor4-first=Hans Antonius|editor4-last=Witte|title=Genres in Visual Representations: Proceedings of a Conference Held in 1986 by Invitation of the Werner-Reimers-Stiftung in Bad Homburg (Federal Republic of Germany).|chapter= The Syrian Cult Relief|series=Visible Religion. Annual for Religious Iconography (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen)|volume= 7|year=1990|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-09094-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'crisis'|series= The Cambridge Ancient History|title= The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|first= John|last=Drinkwater|editor1-first=Alan K.|editor1-last=Bowman|editor2-first=Peter|editor2-last=Garnsey|editor3-first=Averil|editor3-last=Cameron|volume=12|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=History of the Jews From the Roman Empire to the Early Medieval Period|volume=2|first= Simon|last=Dubnov|translator-first=Moshe|translator-last=Spiegel|publisher=Thomas Yoseloff|origyear=1916|year=1968|OCLC=900833618|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|title=Une Nouvelle Inscription Araméenne d'Asoka Trouvée Dans la Vallée du Laghman (Afghanistan)|journal=Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|issue=1|volume=114|first= André|last=Dupont-Sommer|publisher=Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|year=1970|issn=0151-0509|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Peter|last=Edwell|title=Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-09573-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Andrew S.|last1=Ehrenkreutz|title=Saladin|year= 1972|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-87395-095-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Nikita|last=Élisséeff|title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World|chapter= Homs|editor-first=Clifford Edmund |editor-last= Bosworth|year=2007|publisher=Brill|series= EI Reference Guides|volume=1|isbn=978-90-04-15388-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Frontiers of the Roman Empire|first=Hugh|last=Elton|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-253-33111-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Evans|first=Dominic|publisher=Reuters|date= 27 March 2016|title=Syrian army, with Russian air support, advances inside Palmyra|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-idUKKCN0WR0R8|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Jean M.|last1=Evans|first2=Hagop|last2=Kevorkian|editor-first=Elizabeth J.|editor-last=Milleker|title=The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West|chapter=Palmyra|year= 2000|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-0-87099-961-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Nic|last=Fields|title=The Walls of Rome|year= 2008|publisher= Osprey Publishing|isbn= 978-1-84603-198-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Elizabeth Key|last1=Fowden|title=The Barbarian Plain: Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran|year= 1999|publisher=University of California Press|series=Transformation of the Classical Heritage|volume=28|isbn=978-0-520-92220-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Garth|last1=Fowden|title=Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria|series=Transformation of the Classical Heritage Series|volume=36|year= 2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92960-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Gambino|first=Lauren|publisher=The Guardian|date= 28 March 2016|title=Damages to Palmyra ruins in Syrian recapture less than feared, experts say|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/28/palmyra-ruins-syria-recapture-isis-antiquities|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Charles|last=Gates|title=Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome|year= 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-67662-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Michal|last=Gawlikowski|editor-first=Eleonora|editor-last=Cussini|title=A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers|chapter= The City of the Dead|year=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12418-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Gawlikowski|first=Michał|year= 2011|title=Palmyra: reexcavating the site of the Tariff (fieldwork in 2010 and 2011)|publisher=Warsaw University Press|volume=23|issue=1|editor1-first=Iwona|editor1-last= Zych|editor2-first=Agnieszka|editor2-last=Szymczak|ISSN= 1234-5415|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Gaston H.|last1=Halsberghe|title=The Cult of Sol Invictus|year=1972|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9-004-30831-2|series=Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l'Empire Romain|volume=23|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen|last=Gibb|title=The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi|origyear= 1932|year=2002|publisher= Dover publications|edition= Dover|isbn= 978-0-486-42519-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East|first1=Oleg|last1= Grabar|first2=Reneta|last2= Holod|first3=James |last3=Knustad|first4=William |last4=Trousdale|publisher=Harvard University Press|series=Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs|volume=23–24|year=1978|isbn=978-0-674-13195-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=David F.|last=Graf|editor1-first=David H.|editor1-last= French|editor2-first=Chris S.|editor2-last=Lightfoot|chapter=Zenobia and the Arabs|title=The Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire: proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988 (Volume 1)|year= 1989|series=British Archaeological Reports|volume=553|publisher= BAR Publishing|isbn=978-0-86054-700-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Grainger|first=John D.|year=1997|title=A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer|publisher=Brill|series=Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava. Supplementum|volume=172|issn=0169-8958|isbn=978-9-004-10799-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=John D.|last1= Grainger|title=The Battle for Syria, 1918–1920|year= 2013|publisher=Boydell Press|isbn=978-1-84383-803-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars part2 AD 363–628|first1=Geoffrey|last1=Greatrex|first2=Samuel N. C.|last2= Lieu|publisher=Routledge|origyear=2002|year=2005|isbn=978-1-134-75646-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|publisher=Wired|date= 21 October 2015|title=A Jailed Activist's 3-D Models Could Save Syria's History From ISIS|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/10/jailed-activist-bassel-khartabil-3d-models-could-save-syrian-history-from-isis/|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible|chapter= Aram|editor1-first=Bruce Manning|editor1-last=Metzger|editor2-first=Michael David|editor2-last=Coogan|first=Joseph A.|last=Greene|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-517610-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements|first= Gottlieb|last=Guntern|publisher=University Press of America|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7618-5053-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Rachel|last1=Hachlili|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora|series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the near and Middle East Series|volume=35|year= 1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10878-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem|first=Bernard|last= Hamilton|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2005|origyear=2000|edition=Digitally Printed First Paperback Version|isbn= 978-0-521-01747-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Eric J.|last= Hanne|title=Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate|year= 2007|publisher= Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-4113-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=William|last1=Harris|title=Lebanon: A History, 600–2011|year= 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-021783-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Udo|last=Hartmann|title=Das palmyrenische Teilreich|year=2001|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|language= de|isbn=978-3-515-07800-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/26788091/What_was_it_like_to_be_a_Palmyrene_in_the_age_of_crisis_Changing_Palmyrene_identities_in_the_third_century_AD_in_The_World_of_Palmyra_hrsg._v._Andreas_Kropp_u._Rubina_Raja_Palmyrenske_Studier_1_Copenhagen_2016_53_69|last=Hartmann|first= Udo|editor1-first= Andreas|editor1-last= Kropp|editor2-first=Rubina|editor2-last=Raja|year= 2016|chapter=What was it Like to be a Palmyrene in the Age of Crisis? Changing Palmyrene Identities in the Third Century AD|title=The World of Palmyra|publisher=The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters- Specialtrykkeriet Viborg a-s|series=Palmyrenske Studier|volume=1|ISSN=1904-5506|isbn= 978-8-773-04397-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Gerald R.|last=Hawting|editor1-first=Clifford Edmund|editor1-last=Bosworth|editor2-first=Emeri J.|editor2-last=van Donzel|editor3-first=Bernard|editor3-last=Lewis|editor4-first=Charles|editor4-last=Pellat|chapter=Marwan II|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition/EI-2)|volume=6|year= 1991|publisher= Brill|isbn=978-90-04-08112-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Early Alphabet|first=John F.|last=Healey|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-520-07309-8|series= Reading the Past|volume=9|ISSN=1754-7989|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=John F.|last=Healey|title=Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period|series=Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions|volume=4|year= 2009|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925256-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|url=http://www.rug.nl/research/portal/publications/pub(13007598-23b4-48c5-ad15-5c8f93127122).html|first1=Steven Ernst|last1=Hijmans|title=Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome|year=2009|publisher=University Library Groningen|isbn=978-9-036-73931-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Hillenbrand|editor1-first=Gian Pietro|editor1-last=Brogiolo|editor2-first=Bryan Ward|editor2-last=Perkins|chapter='Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism|title=The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages|series=The Transformation of the Roman World|volume=4|year= 1999|publisher= Brill|ISSN=1386-4165|isbn=978-90-04-10901-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Julia|last=Hoffmann-Salz|editor1-first=Paul|editor1-last=Erdkamp|editor2-first=Koenraad|editor2-last=Verboven|editor3-first=Arjan |editor3-last=Zuiderhoek|chapter=The Local Economy of Palmyra: Organizing Agriculture in an Oasis Environment |title=Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World|year= 2015|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-872892-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Holmes|first=Oliver|publisher=Reuters|date= 3 April 2013|title=Syria's ancient oasis city of Palmyra threatened in fighting|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-palmyra-idUSBRE9320HL20130403|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Peter Malcolm|last1=Holt|title=The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517|year= 2013|origyear=1986|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-87152-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Peter Malcolm|last1=Holt|title=Early Mamluk Diplomacy, 1260–1290: Treaties of Baybars and Qalāwūn with Christian Rulers|year= 1995|publisher=Brill|volume=12|series=Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts|isbn=978-90-04-10246-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=George Fadlo|last=Hourani|title=Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times|editor-first=John |editor-last=Carswell|edition=expanded|origyear=1951|year= 1995|publisher=Princeton University Press|series= Khayats Oriental Reprints|volume=3 |isbn=978-0-691-00032-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel|first= Michael C.|last=Howard|publisher= McFarland|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7864-9033-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=R. Stephen|last1=Humphreys|title=From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260|year= 1977|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-87395-263-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Kamāl al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn Aḥmad|last=Ibn al-ʻAdīm|editor1-first=Suhayl|editor1-last=Zakkār|title= Bughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh Ḥalab|language= ar|origyear= 1262|year=1988|publisher=Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر)|volume= 7|OCLC=30968859|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Abū Yaʻlā Ḥamzah ibn Asad ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Tamīmī|last=Ibn al-Qalanisi|title=Tārīkh Dimashq|editor1-first=Suhayl|editor1-last=Zakkār|language= ar|origyear= 1160|year=1983|publisher=Dār Ḥassān|OCLC=23834177|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Ahmad ibn Muhammad|last=Ibn Arabshah|editor-first=Fāyiz|editor-last=Ḥimṣī|title= ʻAjāʼib al-maqdūr fī nawāʼib Tīmūr|language= ar|origyear= 1437|year=1986|publisher=Muʼassasat al-Risālah|OCLC=19942469|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Ali ibn al-Hasan ibn Hibat Allah ibn 'Abd Allah, Thiqat al-Din, Abu al-Qasim|last=Ibn 'Asakir|title=Tarikh Madinat Dimashiq (تاريخ مدينة دمشق)|language= ar|origyear= 1174|year=1995|editor-first=ʻUmar ibn Gharāmah|editor-last=ʻAmrawī|publisher=Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر)|volume= 57|OCLC=4770667638|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Muhammad|last=Ibn Battuta|editor1-first=ʻAbd al-Hādī|editor1-last=Tāzī|title= Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah al-musammāh Tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharāʼib al-amṣār wa-ʻajāʼib al-asfār|volume=1|language= ar|origyear= 1355|year=1997|publisher=Akādīmīyat al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah|series=Silsilat al-turāth|OCLC=37241892|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=ʻAbd al-Raḥmān|last=Ibn Khaldūn|editor1-first=Suhayl|editor1-last=Zakkār|editor2-first=Ḫalīl|editor2-last=Šaḥāda|title=Muqaddima (al-ʻibar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʼ wa-al-khabar f̣ī ayyām al-ʻArab wa-al-ʻAjam ẉa-al-Barbar wa-man ʻāṣarahum min dhawī al-sulṭān al-al-akbar wa-huwa tarīkh waḥīd ʻaṣrih)|language= ar|origyear= 1375|year=1988|publisher=Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر)|edition=2|volume= 5|OCLC=912572900|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Bahā' ad-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn-Rāfiʿ|last1=Ibn Šaddād|title=Vita et res gestae sultani Almalichi Alnasiri Saladini|translator-first=Albert|translator-last=Schultens|origyear= 1228|year=1732|publisher=Samuel Luchtmans|language= la|OCLC=716049041|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Irwin|editor-first=Chase F.|editor-last=Robinson|title=Texts, Documents, and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards|chapter=Tribal Feuding and Mamluk Factions in Medieval Syria|year=2003|publisher=Brill|series=Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts|volume=45|isbn=978-90-04-12864-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Farouk|last=Ismail|editor-first1=Michel|editor1-last=Maqdissi|editor-first2=Maamoun|editor2-last=Abdulkarim|title=The Syrian Djezireh: Cultural Heritage and Interrelations. International Colloquium: Deir ez-Zor, April 22—25, 1996|chapter=Relations between Misherfeh-Qatna and the Middle Euphrates Region in the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 B.-C.)|year=2002|publisher= Dimashq: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah, al-Mudīrīyah al-ʻĀmmah lil-Āthār wa-al-Matāḥif|series=Documents d'Archéologie Syrienne|volume=1|OCLC=192118525|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|first= Takura |last=Izumi|year= 1995|title=The Remains of Palmyra, the City of Caravans, and an Estimation of the City's Ancient Environment|journal=Silk Roadology|publisher= Bulletin of the Research Center for Silk Roadology|volume=1|OCLC=174059209|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Jeffries|first= Stuart|publisher=The Guardian|date= 2 September 2015|title= Isis's destruction of Palmyra: 'The heart has been ripped out of the city' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/02/isis-destruction-of-palmyra-syria-heart-been-ripped-out-of-the-city|accessdate=4 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/7312508/Late_Roman_fortifications_in_Palmyra|last=Juchniewicz|first=Karol|year= 2013|journal=Studia Palmyreńskie|title=Late Roman fortifications in Palmyra|publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw|volume=12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference,Warsaw,6–8 December 2010|ISSN= 0081-6787|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1= Kaiser|first1=Tina|publisher=Die Welt|date= 6 November 2010|title=Ex-RTL-Chef Thoma: "Es war Nacht, und da waren Schlangen ..."|language=de|url=https://www.welt.de/fernsehen/article10768775/Es-war-Nacht-und-da-waren-Schlangen.html?wtmc=plista|accessdate=13 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Ted|last=Kaizer|editor1-first=Olivier|editor1-last=Hekster|editor2-first=Richard|editor2-last=Fowler|title=Imaginary Kings: Royal Images in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome|series=Oriens et Occidens|volume=11|chapter=Kingly Priests in the Roman Near East?|year=2005|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|ISBN=978-3-515-08765-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Ted|last=Kaizer|editor1-first=Boris|editor1-last=Chrubasik|editor2-first=Daniel|editor2-last=King|title=Hellenism and the Local Communities of the Eastern Mediterranean: 400 BCE-250 CE|chapter=Trajectories of Hellenism at Tadmor-Palmyra and Dura-Europos|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|ISBN=978-0-192-52819-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=David |last1=Kennedy|first2=Derrick|last2= Riley|title=Rome's Desert Frontiers|origyear=1990|year= 2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-78269-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Hugh N.|last=Kennedy|title=The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East|series=Variorum Collected Studies Series|volume=860|year= 2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-5909-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Pictorial Bible – being the Old and New Testaments according to authorized versions|first= John|last=Kitto|publisher=Charles Knight & Co|volume=2|year=1837|OCLC=729755279|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1= Lamb|first1=Franklin|publisher=CounterPunch|date= 31 May 2017|title=Palmyra Update: Major Restorations Ready to Launch as Global Partners Await Security|url=http://www.counterpunch.org/2017/05/31/palmyra-update-major-restorations-ready-to-launch-as-global-partners-await-security/|accessdate=1 June 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Palestine under the Moslems, a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the medieval Arab geographers|first=Guy|last= Le Strange|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Co|year= 1890|OCLC= 5965873|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Levick|title=Julia Domna: Syrian Empress|year= 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-32351-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Henri|last=Limet|editor1-first=Toufic|editor1-last=Fahd|title=La Toponymie Antique (actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 12-14 juin 1975)|series=Travaux du Centre de recherche sur le Proche-Orient et la Grèce antiques|volume=4|chapter= Permanence et changement dans la toponymie|year=1977|language= fr|publisher=Brill|OCLC=629792501|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title= The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy|first= Mario |last=Liverani|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-1-134-75084-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=The Seljuqs|series= The Cambridge Medieval History|title= The Eastern Roman Empire|first= Herbert Martin James|last=Loewe|editor1-first=John Bagnell|editor1-last=Bury|editor2-first=Joseph Robson|editor2-last=Tanner|editor3-first=Charles William|editor3-last=Previté-Orton|editor4-first=Zachary Nugent|editor4-last=Brooke|volume=4|year=1923|publisher=Cambridge University Press|OCLC=650498400|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Loveluck|first=Louisa|publisher=The Telegraph|date= 16 June 2015|title=Syrian regime 'launches air strike on world famous ancient city of Palmyra'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11679477/Syrian-regime-launches-air-strike-on-world-famous-ancient-city-of-Palmyra.html|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran|first=Christoph|last=Luxenberg|publisher=Verlag Hans Schiler|origyear=2000|year=2007|isbn=978-3-89930-088-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=The Early Historic Period: Achaemenids and Greeks|title=The Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid Period|first1=David w.|last1=MacDowall|first2=Maurizio|last2=Taddei|editor1-first=Frank Raymond|editor1-last=Allchin|editor2-first=Norman|editor2-last=Hammond|year=1978|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-120-50440-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Christopher S.|last1=Mackay|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|year= 2004|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-80918-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|first=Mairi|last=Mackay|publisher=CNN|date= 18 May 2015|title=Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/05/15/middleeast/syria-palmyra-isis/|accessdate=2 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Majcherek|first=Grzegorz|year= 2013|title=Excavating the basilicas|journal=Studia Palmyreńskie|publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw|volume= 12 (Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009: International Conference, Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010)|ISSN= 0081-6787|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=Al-Malik Al-Mujahid, Ruler of Homs, and the Hospitallers (The Evidence in the Chronicle of Ibn Wasil)|series=Central European University Medievalia Series|title=The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity|first=Balázs |last=Major|editor1-first=Zsolt|editor1-last=Hunyadi|editor2-first=József|editor2-last=Laszlovszky|volume=1|year=2001|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=978-963-9241-42-8|ISSN=1587-6470|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Makieh|first=Kinda|publisher=Reuters|date= 4 October 2015|title=Islamic State militants blow up ancient Arch of Triumph in Palmyra|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-palmyra-idUKKCN0RY0YN20151004|accessdate=2 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Makieh|first=Kinda|publisher=Reuters|date= 2 April 2016|title=Palmyra's dynamited temple can be restored, de-miners use robots|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKCN0WX1Z3|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Makieh|first1=Kinda|last2=Francis|first2=Ellen|publisher=Reuters|date= 3 March 2017|title=Less damage to ancient Palmyra than feared, Syrian antiquities chief says|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16A1L2|accessdate=6 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Makieh|first1=Kinda|first2=Tom|last2=Perry|first3=Jane|last3=Merriman|publisher=Reuters|date= 1 October 2017|title=Palmyra statue damaged by Islamic State goes on display in Damascus|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-statue/palmyra-statue-damaged-by-islamic-state-goes-on-display-in-damascus-idUKKCN1C61FA|accessdate=3 October 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Maqdisi|first1=Firas|publisher=Reuters|date= 5 March 2017|title=Expert says Islamic State has badly damaged major Palmyra monument|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16B0Q2|accessdate=6 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Markowski|first= Bartosz|year= 2005|title=The Lion of Allat in Palmyra New Museum Display Project|journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean|publisher=Warsaw University Press|volume=16|editor1-first=Michał|editor1-last=Gawlikowski|editor2-first=Wiktor A.|editor2-last=Daszewski|ISSN= 1234-5415|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Matthiae|first=Paolo|publisher=Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA)|date= 30 June 2017|title=Archeaologist says '70% of Palmyra can be rebuilt'|url=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2017/06/28/archeaologist-says-70-of-palmyra-can-be-rebuilt_1003e771-b64b-4c8e-83b8-0a4aa7f362b5.html|accessdate=4 July 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=McGirk|first=Tim|publisher=National Geographic News|date= 10 July 2015|title=Syrians Race to Save Ancient City's Treasures from ISIS|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150710-palmyra-syria-isis-looting-museum-archaeology/|accessdate=2 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Raoul|last=McLaughlin|title=Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China|year= 2010|publisher= Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4411-6223-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Greek Discovery of Politics|first= Christian |last=Meier|translator-first=David|translator-last=McLintock|publisher=Harvard University Press|origyear=1980|year=1990|isbn=978-0-674-36232-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Inge|last1=Mennen|title=Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284|year= 2011|publisher=Brill|volume=12|series= Impact of Empire|isbn=978-90-04-20359-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=Managing Risk: Sheep-Rearing and Agriculture in the Syrian Steppe|series= University of Cambridge Oriental Publications|title= The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East|first= Francoise|last=Métral|editor1-first=Martha|editor1-last=Mundy|editor2-first=Basim|editor2-last=Musallam|volume=58|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77057-6|ISSN= 0068-6891|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|first=Julia|last=Michalska|publisher=The Art Newspaper|date=21 October 2016|title=The man who spent 40 years preserving Palmyra's past|url=http://theartnewspaper.com/news/conservation/the-man-who-spent-40-years-preserving-palmyra-s-past/|accessdate=15 December 2016|ref=harv|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220201614/http://theartnewspaper.com/news/conservation/the-man-who-spent-40-years-preserving-palmyra-s-past/|archivedate=20 December 2016|df=dmy-all}}
• {{cite book|first= Fergus |last=Millar|title= The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337| year=1993| publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-77886-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Fergus|last=Millar|editor1-first=Hagit|editor1-last=Amirav|editor2-first=Bas |editor2-last=ter Haar Romeny|title=From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron|chapter= Theodoret of Cyrrhus: A Syrian in Greek Dress?|series=Late antique history and religion|volume=1|year=2007|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-1971-6|ISSN=2030-5915|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Sami|last=Moubayed|title=Syria and the USA: Washington's Relations with Damascus from Wilson to Eisenhower|series=Library of International Relations|volume=56|year=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-780-76768-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Studies in Aramaic Edicts of Aśoka|first=Bratindra Nath|last=Mukherjee|publisher=Kolkata: Indian Museum|origyear=1984|year=2000|edition= 2|oclc=62327000|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|series= Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics|volume= 13|title= Hebrew in its West Semitic Setting. A Comparative Survey of Non-Masoretic Hebrew Dialects and Traditions. Part 1. A Comparative Lexicon|first=Aimo Edvard|last=Murtonen|editor1-last= Hospers|editor1-first=Johannes Hendrik|publisher=Brill|year=1986|isbn=978-90-04-08899-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Daniel|last= Neep|title=Occupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State Formation|year= 2012|publisher= Cambridge University Press|series=Cambridge Middle East Studies|volume=38|isbn=978-1-107-00006-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Michael Patrick |last=O'Connor|editor-first= Yoël L. |editor-last= Arbeitman|title=A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages|series=Bibliothèque des Cahiers de l'Institut de linguistique de Louvain (BCILL)|volume=42|chapter=The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra|year=1988|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6831-143-3|ISSN= 0779-1666|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=O'Connor|first=Roisin|publisher=The Independent|date= 30 August 2015|title=Isis in Syria: Militants 'severely damage' ancient Bel Temple in Palmyra using explosives|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-in-syria-militants-severely-damage-ancient-bel-temple-in-palmyra-using-explosives-10479158.html|accessdate=4 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= John Punnett|last=Peters|chapter= Deir|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information|year=1910|volume=7|edition=11|publisher=Cambridge University Press|OCLC=630332011|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Andrew|last1=Petersen|title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture|year= 1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-61365-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria|first=Nigel|last=Pollard|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-472-11155-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=A Companion to the Roman Empire|editor-first= David S.|editor-last=Potter|first=David S.|last= Potter|chapter=The Transformation of the Empire: 235–337 CE |publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year= 2010|series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World|volume=32|isbn=978-1-4051-9918-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Purcell|editor1-first=Peter V.|editor1-last=Jones|editor2-first=Keith C.|editor2-last=Sidwell|chapter=Rome's New Kings (31. BC. -. AD. 476)|title=The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture|year= 1997|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-38600-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Zubayr Sulṭān|last1=Qaddūrī|title=al-Thawrah al-mansīyah|language= ar|year= 2000|publisher=Ittiḥād al-Kuttāb al-ʻArab|OCLC=45642553|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Qassim|first=Abdul-Zahra|publisher=CNS News|date= 24 August 2015|title=IS destruction of ancient Syrian temple erases rich history|url=http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/destruction-ancient-syrian-temple-erases-rich-history|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=ʻAdnān|last=Qīṭāz|title=al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah|chapter= Muhana Family|language= ar|year=2007|editor-first=Muḥammad ʻAzīz|editor-last=Shukrī|publisher=al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah al-Sūrīyah, Riʼāsat al-Jumhūrīyah, Hayʼat al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah|volume= 19|OCLC=46672427|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Rubina |last=Raja|title=Urban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces, 50 BC-AD 250: Aphrodisias, Ephesos, Athens, Gerasa|year=2012|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press|isbn=978-87-635-2606-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title= Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, II Principat|chapter=New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East|first=Manfred G.|last=Raschke|editor1-last=Temporini|editor1-first=Hildegard|editor2-last=Wolfgang|editor2-first=Haase|series=Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW)|volume=9|publisher= De Gruyter|year=1978|isbn=978-3-11-001885-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|last= Ricca|first= Simone|editor1-last=Dumper|editor1-first= Michael|editor2-last=Stanley|editor2-first= Bruce E.|year= 2007|chapter= Palmyra|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Peter|last1=Richardson|title=City and Sanctuary: Religion and Architecture in the Roman Near East|year= 2002|publisher=SCM Press|isbn=978-0-334-02884-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=David M|last=Robinson|title=Baalbek, Palmyra|year= 1946|publisher=J.J. Augustin|OCLC=426276|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Irene Bald|last1=Romano|title=Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology|series=University Museum Monograph|volume=125|year= 2006|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-1-934536-29-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Rosenthal|first=Franz|year= 1978|title= The Second Laghmân Inscription|publisher=Israel Exploration Society|volume=14: H.L. Ginsberg Volume|journal=Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies|ISSN=0071-108X|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|editor-first=Austin M.|editor-last=Harmon|last=Rostovtzeff.|first=Michael Ivanovitch|year= 1932|title=Seleucid Babylonia : Bullae and Seals of Clay with Greek Inscriptions|publisher=Yale University Press|volume=3|journal=Yale Classical Studies|ISSN=0084-330X|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Out of the Past of Greece & Rome|first=Michael Ivanovitch|last=Rostovtzeff|publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers|origyear= 1932|year=1971|series=Biblo and Tannen's Graeco Life and Times Series|volume=6|isbn=978-0-8196-0126-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Caravan Cities|first=Michael Ivanovitch|last=Rostovtzeff|translator1-first=David Talbot|translator1-last=Rice|translator2-first=Tamara Talbot|translator2-last=Rice|publisher=The Clarendon Press|year=1932|OCLC=2153578|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=History|series= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East|title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria|first= Hélène|last=Sader|editor1-first=Wilfred|editor1-last=van Soldt|editor2-first=Gary|editor2-last=Beckman|editor3-first=Christian|editor3-last=Leitz|editor4-first=Piotr|editor4-last=Michalowski|editor5-first=Peter A.|editor5-last=Miglus|editor6-first=Holger|editor6-last=Gzella|volume=106|year=2014|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9-004-22845-0|ISSN=0169-9423|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=The Arabs and the Desert Peoples|series= The Cambridge Ancient History|title= The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|first= Maurice|last=Sartre|editor1-first=Alan K.|editor1-last=Bowman|editor2-first=Peter|editor2-last=Garnsey|editor3-first=Averil|editor3-last=Cameron|volume=12|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Saul|first=Heather|publisher=The Independent|date= 28 May 2015|title=Isis in Palmyra: Civilians forced to watch execution of 20 men at amphitheatre|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/10281695.html|accessdate=4 March 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Andreas|last=Schmidt-Colinet|editor-first=Susan E.|editor-last= Alcock|chapter=Aspects of 'Romanization': The Tomb Architecture at Palmyra and Its Decoration|title=The Early Roman Empire in the East|series=Oxbow Monographs in Archaeology|volume=95|year= 1997|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=978-1-900188-52-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Margaret Fox|last=Schmidt|title=Passion's child: The Extraordinary Life of Jane Digby|year= 1976|publisher=Harper & Row|OCLC=1020238678|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1939_num_20_4_4156|last=Seyrig|first= Henri|year= 1939|title=Antiquités Syriennes|journal=Syria. Revue d'Art Oriental et d'Archéologie|publisher=l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient|volume=20|issue=4|issn= 0039-7946|language=fr|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Shaheen|first1=Kareem|first2=Glenn|last2=Swann|first3=Cath|last3=Levett|publisher=The Guardian|date= 5 October 2015|title=Palmyra – what the world has lost|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/ng-interactive/2015/oct/05/palmyra-what-the-world-has-lost|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Shaheen|first1=Kareem|publisher=The Guardian|date= 21 May 2015|title= Palmyra: historic Syrian city falls under control of Isis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/20/syrian-city-of-palmyra-falls-under-control-of-isis|accessdate=13 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Shaheen|first1=Kareem|publisher=The Guardian|date= 20 January 2017|title= Isis destroys tetrapylon monument in Palmyra |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/20/isis-destroys-tetrapylon-monument-palmyra-syria|accessdate=20 January 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Irfan|last=Shahîd|title=Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|year= 1984|publisher= Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|isbn=978-0-88402-115-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Irfan|last=Shahîd|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Political and Military History)|volume=1|year= 1995|publisher= Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|isbn=978-0-88402-214-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Irfan|last=Shahîd|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography, and Frontier Studies)|volume=2|year= 2002|publisher= Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|isbn=978-0-88402-284-8|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Steven E.|last1=Sidebotham|first2=Martin|last2=Hense|first3=Hendrikje M.|last3=Nouwens|title=The Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern Desert|year=2008|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-094-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Alexei|last1=Sivertsev|title=Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine|year= 2002|publisher= Mohr Siebeck|series=Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum|volume=90|ISSN= 0721-8753|isbn=978-3-16-147780-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|last= Smith|first= Sidney|year= 1956|title=Ursu and Ḫaššum|journal=Anatolian Studies|publisher=Cambridge University Press on Behalf of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara|volume=6|ISSN= 0066-1546|ref=harv|doi=10.2307/3642395}}
• {{cite book|title=Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|first= Andrew M.|last=Smith II|publisher=Oxford University Press|year= 2013|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen|first= Patricia|last=Southern|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year= 2008|isbn= 978-1-4411-4248-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Graham|last=Speake|editor1-first=Kathryn Ann|editor1-last=Berney|editor2-first=Trudy|editor2-last=Ring|editor3-first=Noelle |editor3-last=Watson|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places|volume=4 (Middle East and Africe)|chapter= Palmyra (Homs, Syria)|year=1996|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers|isbn=978-1-884964-03-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|author=Sputnik|publisher=Sputnik|date=15 August 2018|title=Syrian Authorities Say Restored Palmyra Could Start Receiving Tourists in 2019|url=https://sputniknews.com/middleeast/201808151067223035-syria-palmyra-homs-tourists-restoration/|accessdate=17 September 2018|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1= Squires|first1=Nick|publisher=The Telegraph|date=16 February 2017|title=Stone Sculptures Smashed by ISIL in Ancient City of Palmyra Restored to Former Glory by Italian Experts|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/16/stone-sculptures-smashed-isil-ancient-city-palmyra-restored/|accessdate=16 June 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Richard |last=Stoneman|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome |origyear=1992 | year=1994| publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-08315-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Donald Emrys|last1=Strong|editor1-first=Jocelyn Mary Catherine|editor1-last=Toynbee|editor2-first=Roger|editor2-last=Ling|title= Roman Art|series=Pelican History of Art|volume=44|origyear=1976|year= 1995|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-05293-0|ISSN= 0553-4755|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The Pantheon of Palmyra|first=Javier|last= Teixidor|publisher=Brill|year= 1979|series=Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain|volume=79|isbn= 978-90-04-05987-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Javier|last=Teixidor|editor-first=Eleonora|editor-last=Cussini|title=A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers|chapter= Palmyra in the third century|year=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12418-9|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Terpak|first1=Frances|first2=Peter Louis|last2= Bonfitto|title=The Legacy of Ancient Palmyra|url=http://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/palmyra/index.html|publisher=The Getty Research Institute|date= 2017|accessdate=10 February 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1=Tharoor|first1=Kanishk|last2=Maruf|first2=Maryam|publisher=BBC News|date=1 March 2016|title=Museum of Lost Objects: The Temple of Bel|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35688943|accessdate=29 June 2017|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City|first= Richard A.|last=Tomlinson|publisher=Routledge|origyear=1992|year=2003|isbn=978-1-134-92894-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Steven L.|last1=Tuck|title=A History of Roman Art|year= 2015|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3025-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/12137231/_Qatna_in_altsyrischer_Zeit_in_P._Pf%C3%A4lzner_and_M._Al-Maqdissi_eds._Qa%E1%B9%ADna_and_the_Networks_of_Bronze_Age_Globalism._Proceedings_of_an_International_Conference_in_Stuttgart_and_T%C3%BCbingen_in_October_2009._Qa%E1%B9%ADna_Studien_Supplementa_2_Wiesbaden_Harrassowitz_2015_81-94|last=Van Koppen|first= Frans|language= de|editor-first= Peter|editor-last=Pfälzner|year= 2015|title= Qaṭna in altsyrischer Zeit|journal= Qaṭna Studien Supplementa: Übergreifende und vergleichende Forschungsaktivitäten des Qaṭna-Projekts der Universität Tübingen|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|volume=2: Qaṭna and the Networks of Bronze Age Globalism. Proceedings of an International Conference in Stuttgart and Tübingen in October 2009|ISSN=2195-4305|isbn= 978-3-447-10350-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Aruna|last=Vasudevan|editor1-first=Trudy|editor1-last=Ring|editor2-first=Robert M.|editor2-last=Salkin|editor3-first=Sharon |editor3-last=La Boda|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places|volume=3 (Southern Europe)|chapter= Athens (Attica, Greece): Agora|year=1995|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers|isbn=978-1-884964-02-2|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Waardenburg|editor1-first=Hans Gerhard|editor1-last=Kippenberg|editor2-first=Hendrik Jan Willem|editor2-last=Drijvers|editor3-first=Yme B.|editor3-last=Kuiper|title=Struggles of Gods: Papers of the Groningen Work Group for the Study of the History of Religions|year=1984|chapter=Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood, and the Rise of Islam|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|series=Religion and Reason|volume=31|ISSN=0080-0848|isbn=978-90-279-3460-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Jean Jacques|last=Waardenburg|title=Islam: Historical, Social, and Political Perspectives|series=Religion and Reason|volume=40|year= 2002|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|ISSN= 0080-0848|isbn=978-3-11-017178-5|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Alaric |last=Watson |title=Aurelian and the Third Century |origyear=1999 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-90815-8 |ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=William E.|last=Watson |title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World|year=2003|publisher=Praeger Publishers|isbn=978-0-275-97470-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Günther|last=Wessel|title=Das schmutzige Geschäft mit der Antike: Der globale Handel mit illegalen Kulturgütern|language= de|year= 2015|publisher=Ch. Links Verlag|isbn=978-3-86284-311-4|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Everett L|last=Wheeler|editor1-first=Paul|editor1-last= Erdkamp|chapter=The Army and the Limes in the East|title=A Companion to the Roman Army|year=2011|publisher= Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4443-9376-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|chapter=The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East|series= The New Cambridge History of Islam|title= The formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh Centuries |first= Mark |last=Whittow |editor-first=Chase F.|editor-last=Robinson|volume=1|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-18430-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last1= Williams|first1=Sara Elizabeth|publisher=The Telegraph|date= 11 December 2016|title= Isil retakes historic city of Palmyra|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/10/islamic-state-back-unesco-world-heritage-city-palmyra-surprise/|accessdate=13 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first1=Stefan|last1=Winter|title=The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788|year= 2010|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48681-1|ref=harv}}
• {{cite web|last=Withnall|first=Adam|publisher=The Independent|date= 19 August 2015|title=Isis executes Palmyra antiquities chief and hangs him from ruins he spent a lifetime restoring|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-executes-palmyra-antiquities-chief-khaled-asaad-and-hangs-him-from-ruins-he-spent-a-lifetime-10461601.html|accessdate=12 December 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=تاريخ اللغات السامية (History of Semitic Languages)|first=Israel|last=Wolfensohn|language=ar|origyear=1914|publisher=دار القلم للطباعة و النشر و التوزيع |OCLC=929730588|year= 2016|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=The ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the desart|first= Robert|last=Wood|publisher=London, Robert Wood|year=1753|OCLC=642403707|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title= Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|chapter= Syria and Canaan|last= Wright|first= David P.|editor-first=Sarah Iles |editor-last=Johnston|publisher= Harvard University Press|year= 2004|isbn= 978-0-674-01517-3|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first=Ehsan|last=Yarshater|editor1-first=Richard G.|editor1-last=Hovannisian|editor2-first=Georges|editor2-last=Sabagh|title=The Persian Presence in the Islamic World|chapter= The Persian Presence in the Islamic World|series= Giorgio Levi della Vida Conference|volume=13|year= 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59185-0|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Les notables de Palmyre|first= Jean-Baptiste|last=Yon|publisher=l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient|language=fr|year=2002|isbn=978-2-912738-19-6|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|title=Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305|first=Gary K.|last= Young|publisher=Routledge|origyear= 2001|year= 2003|isbn= 978-1-134-54793-7|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book|first= Marta |last=Zuchowska|editor1-first=Hartmut|editor1-last=Kühne|editor2-first=Rainer Maria|editor2-last=Czichon|editor3-first=Florian Janoscha|editor3-last=Kreppner|title=Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March – 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin|chapter=Wadi al Qubur and Its Interrelations with the Development of Urban Space of the City of Palmyra in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods|volume= 1|year=2008|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05703-5|ref=harv}}

External links

• Metropolitan Museum of Art – Palmyra
• Palmyra. Italian-Syrian Archaeological Mission of the University of Milan
• Interactive 360° panoramas of Palmyra
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20150814053343/http://cuicui.be/syria-roman-palmyra/ 360° full-screen photospheric visit of Palmyra]
• [https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/palmyra/a/palmyrene-portraiture Tower Tombs, Funerary Portraiture] Kahn Academy

• Eryonidae
• Eryosuchus
• Eryrys
• Erysichton
• Erysimaga
• Erysimum aetnense
• Erysimum ammophilum
• Erysimum cheiri
• Erysimum insulare
• Erysimum menziesii
• Erysimum nervosum
• Erysimum officinale
• Erysimum pallasii
• Erysimum popovii
• Erysimum repandum
• Erysimum siliculosum
• Erysimum teretifolium
• Erysipelas (animals)
• Erysipelas carcinomatosum
• Erysipelas of lower limb
• Erysipelatous
• Erysipeloid of Rosenbach
• Erysiphe alphitoides
• Erysiphe communis f. betae
• Erysiptila