| 词条 | Storm surge |
| 释义 |
A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems (such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, as well as the timing of tides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges. It is a measure of the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement related to tides. The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center. Historic storm surgesThe deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed up to 500,000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal. The low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones.[1] The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, which killed more than 138,000 people in Myanmar in May 2008. The next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013[1][2][3] and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion (USD).[4] The Galveston Hurricane of 1900, a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas, drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000 lives were lost, making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States. The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at almost 44 ft (13 metres) at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 concluded that the majority of this likely was wave run-up because of the steep coastal topography.[7] In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft (8 metres) in southern Mississippi, with a storm surge height of 27.8 ft (8.5 m) in Pass Christian.[5][9] Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in 1969, with a storm tide of 24.6 ft (7.5 m), also at Pass Christian.[10] A storm surge of 14 ft (4.2 m) occurred in New York City during Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. MechanicsAt least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms:
The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a {{convert|10|mm|in|abbr=on}} increase in sea level for every millibar (hPa) drop in atmospheric pressure. Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as "wind set-up", which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore and to decrease at the upwind shore. Intuitively, this is caused by the storm blowing the water toward one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide. The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge. The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line, which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.[16] The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries. Hurricanes may dump as much as {{convert|12|in|abbr=on}} of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, surface runoff can quickly flood Streams and rivers. This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing downstream into the estuary. Other processesIn addition to the above processes, surge and wave heights on shore are also affected by the flow of water over the underlying topography, i.e. the configuration and bathymetry of the ocean bottom and affected coastal area. A narrow shelf, for example, or one that has a steep drop from the shoreline and subsequently produces deep water in proximity to the shoreline, tends to produce a lower surge but a higher and more powerful wave. This situation is well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida. The edge of the Floridian Plateau, where the water depths reach {{convert|91|m|ft}}, lies just {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}} offshore of Palm Beach; just {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}} offshore, the depth increases to over {{convert|180|m|ft|abbr=on}}.[18] The {{convert|180|m|ft|abbr=on}} depth contour followed southward from Palm Beach County lies more than {{convert|30000|m|ft|abbr=on}} to the east of the Florida Keys. Conversely, coastlines along North America such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida, and Asia such as the Bay of Bengal, have long, gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths. On the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than {{convert|160|km|mi}} offshore of Marco Island in Collier County. Florida Bay, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is also very shallow; depths typically vary between {{convert|0.3|m|ft|abbr=on}} and {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}.[19] These areas are subject to higher storm surges with smaller waves. This difference is because in deeper water, a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. However, upon entering a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge cannot be disperse, but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane. Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation. For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge. With any storm, the area of piled up water can flow out of the storm perimeter, and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force (for the same peak wind speed) when the storm covers more area (storm perimeter length per area is inversely proportional to a circular storm's diameter).[6] Extratropical stormsSimilar to tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones cause an offshore rise of water. However, unlike most tropical cyclone storm surges, extratropical cyclones can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time, depending on the system. In North America, extratropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Coasts with sea ice may experience an "ice tsunami" causing significant damage inland.[7] Extratropical storm surges may be possible further south for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime, when extratropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the 1993 Storm of the Century.[8] November 9–13, 2009, marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the United States east coast when the remnants of Hurricane Ida developed into a Nor'easter off the southeast U.S. coast. During the event, winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low pressure center for a number of days, forcing water into locations such as Chesapeake Bay. Water levels rose significantly and remained as high as {{convert|8|ft}} above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built-up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay. In many locations, water levels were shy of records by only {{convert|0.1|ft|cm|0}}.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Measuring surgeSurge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water.[24] Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005.[25] These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged and can accurately measure the height of water above them.[26] After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photographs and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by National Hurricane Center in post-storm analysis of the surge.[27] Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement caused by tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.[24][27] SLOSH{{Main|Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes}}{{See also|Tropical cyclone forecasting}}The National Hurricane Center forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model, which is an abbreviation for Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes. The model is accurate to within 20 percent.[30] SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone, storm size, the cyclone's forward motion, its track, and maximum sustained winds. Local topography, bay and river orientation, depth of the sea bottom, astronomical tides, as well as other physical features, are taken into account in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin. Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S.[31] Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin; for instance, Hurricane Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the Lake Ponchartrain / New Orleans basin, and the Mississippi Sound basin, for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall. The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water, or MEOW, that occurred at each location. To allow for track or forecast uncertainties, usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs, or Maximum of Maximums.[32] For hurricane evacuation studies, a family of storms with representative tracks for the region, and varying intensity, eye diameter, and speed, are modeled to produce worst-case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence. The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs. These studies have been completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies (HES) website.[33] They include coastal county maps, shaded to identify the minimum category of hurricane that will result in flooding, in each area of the county.[34] MitigationAlthough meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms, in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high, there are specific storm surge warnings. These have been implemented, for instance, in the Netherlands,[35] Spain,[36][37] the United States,[38][39] and the United Kingdom.[40] A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and storm-surge barriers (flood barriers). They are open and allow free passage, but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands, which are part of the Delta Works project; the Thames Barrier protecting London; and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia. Another modern development (in use in the Netherlands) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures, restrained in position by vertical pylons.[41] Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low-lying elevations, provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion. For mainland areas, storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward, rather than approaching from landward.[42] Reverse storm surgeWater can also be sucked away from shore prior to a storm surge. This was the case on the western Florida coast in 2017, just before Hurricane Irma made landfall, uncovering land usually underwater.[9] This phenomenon is known as a reverse storm surge,[10] or a negative storm surge.[11] First Scientific and Technical Symposium on Storm SurgesThe First Scientific and Technical Symposium on Storm Surges was organized in October 2007 by the WMO-IOC Joint Technical Commission JCOMM i.e. "Joint Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology" in Seoul, Republic of Korea, hosted by the Korean Government. This symposium was the first such scientific event devoted solely to storm surges in at least the past 3 decades. It aimed to support the development of marine multi-hazard warning systems, by 1) providing a forum for the exchange of ideas and information related to storm surge modelling, forecasting and hindcasting; 2) coordinating ongoing and planning future R&D initiatives in these fields; and 3) providing guidance/technical support for National Meteorological Services and other national agencies providing storm surge forecasting and warning services. Results from the Symposium are to contribute to the JCOMM Guide to Storm Surge Forecasting which was under finalization. It will set the stage for advances in forecasting of these events and reduction of their impacts. Overall, the symposium was a great success, and all participants were appreciative of this initiative at the present time. The quality of the presentations was excellent, which would facilitate the selection of a subset of them for peer review and publication in the planned special edition of the journal “Natural Hazards – Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards” (Springer). This same subset would also form the “dynamic” part of the new Guide to Storm Surge Forecasting. A key component of the symposium was the panel discussion session on the last day, designed to draw conclusions and point the way forward in storm surge modelling and forecasting. The agreed set of recommendations and actions are addressed to researchers, WMO/IOC/JCOMM, and Member States.[12] See also
Notes1. ^[https://www.unicefusa.org/mission/emergencies/hurricanes/2013-philippines-typhoon-haiyan Haiyan brought immense destruction, but hope is returning to the Philippines] Unicef USA. Retrieved 2016-04-11 [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]2. ^CBS/AP (2013-11-14). "Philippines typhoon dead buried in mass grave in hard-hit Tacloban as aid begins to pour in" CBSNEWS.com. Retrieved 2013-11-14. 3. ^Brummitt, Chris (2013-11-13). "After Disasters Like Typhoon Haiyan, Calculating Death Toll Often Difficult". Associated Press, Huffington Post. Retrieved 2013-11-14. 4. ^Yap, Karl Lester M.; Heath, Michael (2013-11-12). "Yolanda's Economic Cost P600 billion" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204906/http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/index.php/en/news/top-news/22731-yolanda-s-economic-cost-p600-billion |date=2014-08-12 }}. Bloomberg News, BusinessMirror.com.ph. Retrieved 2013-11-14. 5. ^{{cite web|author=FEMA|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)|date=2006-05-30|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Hurricane Katrina Flood Recovery (Mississippi)|url=http://www.fema.gov/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_ms_methods.shtm|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917203942/http://www.fema.gov/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_ms_methods.shtm|archivedate=2008-09-17|df=}} 6. ^Irish, Jennifer L., Donald T. Resio, and Jay J. Ratcliff. “The Influence of Storm Size on Hurricane Surge.” Journal of Physical Oceanography 38, no. 9 (September 1, 2008): 2003–13. {{doi|10.1175/2008JPO3727.1}}. 7. ^{{cite news|last1=Meyer|first1=Robinson|title=The ‘Ice Tsunami’ That Buried a Whole Herd of Weird Arctic Mammals|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/the-ice-tsunami-that-entombed-the-arctics-weirdest-mammal/550808/|accessdate=19 January 2018|work=The Atlantic|date=18 January 2018}} 8. ^{{cite web | title = Superstorm of March 1993 | author = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | url = https://www.weather.gov/media/publications/assessments/Superstorm_March-93.pdf | accessdate=January 31, 2018 | year=1994 | publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131201527/https://www.weather.gov/media/publications/assessments/Superstorm_March-93.pdf | archivedate=January 31, 2018 | deadurl=no}} 9. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/09/10/us/shorelines-drained-hurricane-irma-storm-surge/index.html|title=Shorelines drained in eerie effect of Hurricane Irma|last=CNN|first=Ray Sanchez|website=CNN|access-date=2017-09-11}} 10. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/weather/hurricane/article172746766.html|title=Irma’s powerful winds cause eerie retreat of ocean waters, stranding manatees and boats|work=Miami Herald|first=Linda|last=Robertson|date=11 September 2017|accessdate=14 September 2017}} 11. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/weather-phenomena/storm-surge|title=Storm Surge|work=Met Office|accessdate=14 September 2017}} 12. ^https://www.jcomm.info/index.php?option=com_oe&task=viewEventRecord&eventID=126 13. ^1 Granthem 1953 14. ^1 Lane 1980 15. ^1 Lane 1981 16. ^1 2 {{cite web|author=John Boon|publisher=Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary|year=2007|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Ernesto: Anatomy of a Storm Tide|format=PDF|url=http://www.vims.edu/physical/research/ernesto.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706185220/http://www.vims.edu/physical/research/ernesto.pdf|archivedate=2008-07-06}} 17. ^1 {{cite web|author=U.S. Geological Survey|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|date=2006-10-11|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Hurricane Rita Surge Data, Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern Texas, September to November 2005|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2006/220/}} 18. ^1 {{cite web|author=Automated|publisher=Onset Corp|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=U20-001-01-Ti: HOBO Water Level Logger Specification|url=http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/data-loggers/u20-001-01-ti%23tabs1-2|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808135404/http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/data-loggers/u20-001-01-Ti|archivedate=2008-08-08|df=}} 19. ^1 2 {{cite web|author=URS Group, Inc.|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)|date=2006-04-03|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=High Water Mark Collection for Hurricane Katrina in Alabama|url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_al_hwm_public.pdf|format=PDF}} 20. ^1 {{cite web|last=Knabb|first=Richard D|author2=Rhome, Jamie R. |author3=Brown, Daniel P |url={{NHC TCR url|id=AL122005_Katrina}}|format=PDF|title=Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 23–30 August 2005|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=2005-12-20|accessdate=2008-10-11}} 21. ^1 {{cite web|author=Jonathan Nott and Matthew Hayne |publisher=Emergency Management Australia |year=2000 |accessdate=2008-08-11 |title=How high was the storm surge from Tropical Cyclone Mahina? North Queensland, 1899 |format=PDF |url=http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf/$file/How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625203948/http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/%28C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8%29~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf/%24file/How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf |archivedate=June 25, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df= }} 22. ^{{cite web|author=FEMA|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)|date=2005-11-01|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Mississippi Hurricane Katrina Surge Inundation and Advisory Base Flood Elevation Map Panel Overview|format=PDF|url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/ms_overview.pdf}} 23. ^1 Simpson, 1969 24. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=1350 |title=Solar System Exploration: Science & Technology: Science Features: Remembering Katrina - Learning and Predicting the Future |publisher=Solarsystem.nasa.gov |accessdate=2012-03-20}} 25. ^1 {{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=SLOSH Model|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/surge/slosh.shtml}} 26. ^1 {{cite web|author=NOAA|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=SLOSH Model Coverage|date=1999-04-19|accessdate=2008-08-11|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/mdl/marine/Basin.htm}} 27. ^1 {{cite web|author=George Sambataro|publisher=PC Weather Products|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Slosh Data... what is it|url=http://www.pcwp.com/whatisslosh.html}} 28. ^1 {{cite web|author=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=National Hurricane Study Home Page|url=http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/HESHOME.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731051117/http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/HESHOME.htm|archivedate=2008-07-31}} 29. ^1 {{cite web|author=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=Jackson County, MS HES surge maps|url=http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/Mississippi/Jacksonsurgemapspage.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611062344/http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/Mississippi/Jacksonsurgemapspage.htm|archivedate=2008-06-11}} 30. ^1 {{cite web|author=Rijkswaterstaat|date=2008-07-21|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=Storm Surge Warning Service|url=http://www.svsd.nl/index.cfm?taal=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310185750/http://www.svsd.nl/index.cfm?taal=en|archivedate=2008-03-10}} 31. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivmareng.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011940/http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivmareng.html|archivedate=2007-09-28|title=Storm surge forecast system|accessdate=2007-04-14|date=1999-03-01|publisher=Government of Spain|author=Ports of the State}} 32. ^1 {{cite web|publisher=Gobierno de España|author=Puertos del Estado|date=1999-03-01|accessdate=2008-08-10|title=Sistema de previsión del mar a corto plazo|language=Spanish|url=http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivinht.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508045100/http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivinht.html|archivedate=2008-05-08}} 33. ^1 {{cite web|author=Stevens Institute of Technology|publisher=New Jersey Office of Emergency Management|date=2008-08-10|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=Storm Surge Warning System|url=http://hudson.dl.stevens-tech.edu/SSWS/}} 34. ^1 {{cite web|author=Donna Franklin|publisher=National Weather Service|date=2008-08-11|accessdate=2008-08-11|title=NWS StormReady Program, Weather Safety, Disaster, Hurricane, Tornado, Tsunami, Flash Flood...|url=http://www.stormready.noaa.gov}} 35. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/subjects/flood/floodwarning/|title=Current Flooding Situation|date=2007-04-14|author= National Flood Risk Systems Team|publisher=Environment Agency|accessdate=2007-07-07}} 36. ^1 Floating houses built to survive Netherlands floods SFGate.com (San Francisco Chronicle) 37. ^1 {{Cite news | first=Matt | last=Read | title=Prepare for storm evacuations | url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20100527/COLUMNISTS0207/5270331/Lay-Prepare-for-storm-evacuations-tar-balls| work= | publisher=Florida Today | location=Melbourne, Florida | pages= 1B | date=27 May 2010 | accessdate=}} [23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] References{{Refbegin}}
External links{{commonscat|Storm surges}}
4 : Flood|Water waves|Tropical cyclone meteorology|Severe weather and convection |
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