“Supreme Court of the United States”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Supreme Court of the United States (also referred to by the acronym SCOTUS)^[2] is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. Established pursuant to Article III of the U.S. Constitution in 1789, it has original jurisdiction over a narrow range of cases, including suits between two or more states and those involving ambassadors. It also has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal court and state court cases that involve a point of federal constitutional or statutory law. The Court has the power of judicial review, the ability to invalidate a statute for violating a provision of the Constitution or an executive act for being unlawful.^[3] However, it may act only within the context of a case in an area of law over which it has jurisdiction. The court may decide cases having political overtones, but it has ruled that it does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions. Each year it agrees to hear about one hundred to one hundred fifty of the more than seven thousand cases that it is asked to review.^[3]

According to federal statute, the court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices, all of whom are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed from office.^[4]

Each justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the chief justice's vote carries no more weight than any other. When the chief justice is in the majority, he decides who writes the opinion of the court; otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the task of writing the opinion.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

In modern discourse, justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} While a far greater number{{vague|date=March 2019}} of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, exemplifying the justices' alignment according to these categories.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C. Its law enforcement arm is the Supreme Court of the United States Police.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

History

It was while debating the division of powers between the legislative and executive departments that delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention established the parameters for the national judiciary. Creating a "third branch" of government was a novel idea; in the English tradition, judicial matters had been treated as an aspect of royal (executive) authority. Early on, some delegates{{who|date=March 2019}} argued that national laws could be enforced by state courts, while others, including James Madison, advocated for a national judicial authority consisting of various tribunals chosen by the national legislature. It was also proposed that the judiciary should have a role in checking the executive power to veto or revise laws. In the end, the Framers compromised by sketching only a general outline of the judiciary, vesting federal judicial power in "one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish".^[5]^[6] They delineated neither the exact powers and prerogatives of the Supreme Court nor the organization of the {{judicial branch}} as a whole.

The 1st United States Congress provided the detailed organization of a federal judiciary through the Judiciary Act of 1789. The Supreme Court, the country's highest judicial tribunal, was to sit in the nation's Capital and would initially be composed of a chief justice and five associate justices. The act also divided the country into judicial districts, which were in turn organized into circuits. Justices were required to "ride circuit" and hold circuit court twice a year in their assigned judicial district.^[7]

Immediately after signing the act into law, President George Washington nominated the following people to serve on the

court: John Jay for chief justice and John Rutledge, William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, James Wilson, and John Blair Jr. as associate justices. All six were confirmed by the Senate on September 26, 1789. Harrison, however, declined to serve. In his place, Washington later nominated James Iredell.^[8]

The Supreme Court held its inaugural session from February 2 through February 10, 1790, at the Royal Exchange in New York City, then the U.S. capital.^[9] A second session was held there in August 1790.^[10] The earliest sessions of the court were devoted to organizational proceedings, as the first cases did not reach it until 1791.^[7] When the national capital moved to Philadelphia in 1790, the Supreme Court did so as well. After initially meeting at Independence Hall, the Court established its chambers at City Hall.^[11]

Earliest beginnings through Marshall

Under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789–1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving procedure.^[12] As the Court initially had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two).^[13] However, Congress has always allowed less than the court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789.^[14] The court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige,^[15] a situation not helped by the era's highest-profile case, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment.^[16]

The court's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801–35).^[17] Under Marshall, the court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress,^[18] including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison)^[19]^[20] and making several important constitutional rulings that gave shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and states (notably, Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden).^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]

The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim,^[25] a remnant of British tradition,^[26] and instead issuing a single majority opinion.^[25] Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the Court's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804–05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence.^[27]^[28]

From Taney to Taft

The Taney Court (1836–64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects.^[29] Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford,^[30] which helped precipitate the Civil War.^[31] In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864–1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution^[24] and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York;^[32] Adair v. United States).^[33]

Under the White and Taft Courts (1910–30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York),^[34] grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases)^[35] and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children's Hospital).^[36]

New Deal era

During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930–53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935^[37] and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler).^[38]^[39]^[40] During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend.

Warren and Burger

The Warren Court (1953–69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties.^[41] It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.)^[42] and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut),^[43] limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp),^[44]^[45] incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States—prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel),^[46]^[47]—and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona).^[48] At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.^[49]

The Burger Court (1969–86) marked a conservative shift.^[50] It also expanded Griswold's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade),^[51] but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke)^[52] and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo).^[53] It also dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia),^[54] then the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).^[54]^[55]^[56]

Rehnquist and Roberts

The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism,^[57] emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores).^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62] It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas),^[63] and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons-Harris) and reaffirmed Roe's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey).^[64] The Court's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial.^[65]^[66]

The Roberts Court (2005–present) is regarded as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court.^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70] Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly-Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart),^[71] climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same-sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment),^[72] Heller-McDonald (Second Amendment)^[73] and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment).^[74]^[75]

Composition

Size of the court

Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six "judges". Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863.^[76]

In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine,^[77] where it has since remained.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack" the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt's New Deal.^[78] The plan, usually called the "court-packing plan", failed in Congress.^[79] Nevertheless, the Court's balance began to shift within months when Justice Willis Van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.^[80]

Appointment and confirmation

The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court".^[81] Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice's decisions may end up being contrary to a president's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.

In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955.^[82] Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.

Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon B. Johnson's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat left vacant by Antonin Scalia's death was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy.^[83] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.^[84]

Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with President George W. Bush's nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.^[85]

Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office.^[86] The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date.^[87] The importance of commissioning is underscored by the case of Edwin M. Stanton. Although appointed to the court on December 19, 1869 by President Ulysses S. Grant and confirmed by the Senate a few days later, Stanton died on Dec 24, prior to receiving his commission. He is not, therefore, considered to have been an actual member of the court.

Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past.^[88] According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).^[89]^[90]

Recess appointments

When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed.^[91]

No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts.^[92] In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate" resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances".^[93] Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action.^[93]^[94]

The Supreme Court's 2014 decision in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Writing for the Court, Justice Breyer stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business."^[95] This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions.^[96]

Tenure

The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire.^[97] Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805).^[98] Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.^[99]

Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).

Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.

Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century: Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[100]

Membership

Current justices

The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice, currently John Roberts, and eight associate justices. Among the current members of the Court, Clarence Thomas is the longest-serving justice, with a tenure of {{age in days nts|1991|10|23}} days ({{ayd|1991|10|23}}) as of {{FULLDATE}}; the most recent justice to join the court is Brett Kavanaugh, whose tenure began on October 6, 2018.

Length of tenure

This graphical timeline depicts the length of each current Supreme Court justice's tenure (not seniority) on the Court:

Court demographics

The Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African-American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito's parents were born in Italy,^[102]^[103] and Justice Ginsburg's father was born in Russia.^[104]

At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish. It is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian.^[105]

Every current justice has an Ivy League background.^[106] Four justices are from the state of New York, one is from California, one is from New Jersey, one is from Georgia, one is from Colorado, and one is from Maryland.^[107]^[108] In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Diversity concerns focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.^[109]

Historically, most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists.^[110]^[111] The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836,^[112] and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis.^[119] In recent years the historical situation has reversed. Most recent justices have been either Catholic or Jewish.

Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in the Court began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967.^[119] Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981.^[119] Marshall was succeeded by African-American Clarence Thomas in 1991.^[113] O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993.^[123] After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Hispanic and Latina justice,^[119] and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court's history.^[114]

There have been six foreign-born justices in the Court's history: James Wilson (1789–1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790–1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793–1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889–1910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922–1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939–1962), born in Vienna, Austria.^[115]

Retired justices

There are currently four living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the Chief Judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.

The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.

In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role.^[116]^[117] The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed.^[118]^[119]

Seniority and seating

For the most part, the day-to-day activities of the justices are governed by rules of protocol based upon the seniority of justices. The Chief Justice always ranks first in the order of precedence—regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service. The chief justice sits in the center on the bench, or at the head of the table during conferences. The other justices are seated in order of seniority. The senior-most associate justice sits immediately to the chief justice's right; the second most senior sits immediately to his left. The seats alternate right to left in order of seniority, with the most junior justice occupying the last seat.

During Court sessions, justices sit according to seniority, with the chief justice in the center and associate justices on alternating sides, with the most senior associate justice on the chief justice's immediate right, and the most junior associate justice seated on the left farthest away from the chief justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Gorsuch, Sotomayor, Breyer, Thomas (most senior associate justice), Roberts (chief justice), Ginsburg, Alito, Kagan, and Kavanaugh (most junior associate justice). Likewise, when the members of the Court gather for official group photographs, justices are arranged in order of seniority, with the five most senior members seated in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions, and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions.

In the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority, beginning with the chief justice first and ending with the most junior associate justice. By custom, the most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk.^[120] Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days.^[121] Justice Elena Kagan comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2,439 days.

Salary

As of 2018, associate justices are paid $255,300 and the chief justice $267,000.^[122] Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.

Judicial leanings

Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.

Following the confirmation of Brett Kavanaugh in 2018, the Court currently consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas, Alito, Gorsuch, and Kavanaugh, appointed by Republican presidents, comprise the Court's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan, appointed by Democratic presidents, comprise the Court's liberal wing. Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.^[123] Kavanaugh was considered one of the more conservative judges in the DC Circuit prior to his appointment to the Supreme Court.^[124]^[125]

Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal-defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.

According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22%) were decided by a 5–4 vote, with an average of 70% of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15% of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62% of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44% of all the 5–4 decisions.^[128]

In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case).^[129]^[130] Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48%, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9–0 or 8–0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5–4 vote (about 20%, compared to 18% in the October 2009 term, and 29% in the October 2008 term).^[131] However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5–4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote"). This represents 87% of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63% of the 5–4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts Court.^[129]^[132]^[133]^[134]^[135]

In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44%) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20%, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5–4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.^[128]^[136]^[137]

In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49% of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51% of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5–4 in 23 cases (29% of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96%) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54%) cases, in which they both participated.

Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5–4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83%) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91%) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote" of the Court.^[138]^[139]

The October 2017 term had a low rate of unanimous rulings, with only 39% of the cases decided by unanimous rulings, the lowest percentage since the October 2008 term when 30% of rulings were unanimous.^[140] Chief Justice Roberts was in the majority most often (68 out of 73 cases, or 93.2%), with retiring Justice Anthony Kennedy in second (67 out of 73 cases, or 91.8%); this was typical of the Roberts Court, in which Roberts and Kennedy have been in the majority most frequently in all terms except for the 2013 and 2014 terms (though Kennedy was in the top on both those terms).^[141] Justice Sotomayor was the justice least likely to be in the majority (in 50 out of 73 cases, or 68.5%). The highest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Sotomayor, who agreed on 95.8% of the cases, followed by Thomas and Alito agreeing on 93% of cases. There were 19 cases that were decided by a 5–4 vote (26% of the total cases); 74% of those cases (14 out of 19) broke along ideological lines, and for the first time in the Roberts Court, all of those resulted in a conservative majority, with Roberts, Kennedy, Thomas, Alito, and Gorsuch on the majority.^[141]

Facilities

The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police.^[157]

Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue,^[158]^[142] the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4:30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays.^[143] Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film.^[157] When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30 am to 3:30 pm and reservations are not necessary.^[157] When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available.^[144] The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30-minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis.^[145] Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.^[143]

Jurisdiction

Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states^[146] but may decline to hear such cases.^[147] It also possesses original but not exclusive jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens".^[148]

In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp.^[149] The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court's history.^[150]^[151] The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob—aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded—and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now."^[150] The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.^[150]^[151]^[152]

In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The Court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions),^[153] the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari),^[154] the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari),^[155] the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari),^[156] the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari),^[157] and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had" (through certiorari).^[157] In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B. J. F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions.^[158] The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called "collateral review" of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.^[159]

Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases" or "controversies", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, {{ussc|416|312|1974}}, the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review", the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, {{ussc|410|113|1973}}, and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief.^[160]

Justices as circuit justices

The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.

Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding ended in 1901, when the Circuit Court of Appeals Act was passed, and circuit riding was officially abolished by Congress in 1911.^[161]

Today,{{When|date=September 2018}} the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death-penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past,{{when|date=September 2018}} circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. {{cn span|Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted" or "denied" or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion—referred to as an in-chambers opinion—in such matters if he or she wishes.|date=September 2018}}

A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.

The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.

As of October 19, 2018, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is as follows:^[162]

Three of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), and Justice Alito (Third Circuit).

Process

A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses". Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.

Case selection

Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as "cert". The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case".^[163] Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had" if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law.^[164] The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona.

There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford,^[165] parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact.^[166] Georgia v. Brailsford remains the only case in which the court has empaneled a jury, in this case a special jury.^[167] Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado.

A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices' clerks are excluded. The rule of four permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.

The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include:

When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split". If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the case's final ruling.

To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "cert pool". Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.^[168]^[169]^[170]

Oral argument

When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or "friends of the court", may also file briefs. The Court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare),^[172] and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.

Supreme Court bar

In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.^[173] Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.^[174] Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.^[175]

Decision

At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions,^[176] circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns.^[177]^[178]

It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices.^[179] If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there.^[180] This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945).^[181]

Published opinions

The Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports (or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations) to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.

Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition (simply known as Lawyers' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct." representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed." representing the Lawyers' Edition.^[185]^[186]

Citations to published opinions

Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "{{varserif|vol}} U.S. {{varserif|page}}, {{varserif|pin}} ({{varserif|year}})", where {{varserif|vol}} is the volume number, {{varserif|page}} is the page number on which the opinion begins, and {{varserif|year}} is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, {{varserif|pin}} is used to "pinpoint" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___".

Institutional powers and constraints

The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.^[211] Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute."

The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.^[187]

Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government".^[188] Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior", and their pay may "not be diminished" while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.^[187] The Supreme Court, it is noted, cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!";^[189] however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes.^[190]{{cn|date=February 2019}} Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.

Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:

When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.^[191]

In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make." The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871).

On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress). The Court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974).

Law clerks

Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.^[192] Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.

The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882.^[192]^[193] Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer-secretary".^[194] Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.

The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas.^[192] The first African-American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter.^[192] A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.^[192] Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.^[195]

Eight Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John Roberts for William Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall, Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy, and Brett Kavanaugh for Kennedy. Justices Gorsuch and Kavanaugh served under Kennedy during the same term. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked. With the confirmation of Justice Kavanaugh, for the first time a majority of the Supreme Court is composed of former Supreme Court law clerks (Roberts, Breyer, Kagan, Gorsuch and Kavanaugh).

Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John Roberts for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, and Brett Kavanaugh for Judge Walter Stapleton of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and Judge Alex Kozinski of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

Politicization of the Court

Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s," according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School.^[196]^[197] "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts," former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said.^[196] David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives," Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists."^[196]

According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law".^[196] A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44% of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three-quarters said justices' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.^[198]

Criticism

The Supreme Court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:

Judicial activism

The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology.^[199] An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts,^[199]^[200] and which was reversed in the 1930s.^[201]^[202]^[203] An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion on the basis of the "right to privacy" inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous.^[199] Legal scholars,^[204]^[205] justices,^[206] and presidential candidates^[207] have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan^[208] and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater.^[209] More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations.^[210] President Abraham Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court...the people will have ceased to be their own rulers."^[211] Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up."^[212] During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions.^[213]^[214] Critics from both sides complain that activist-judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead.^[215]^[216]^[217] Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano,^[218] Phyllis Schlafly,^[219] Mark R. Levin,^[220] Mark I. Sutherland,^[221] and James MacGregor Burns.^[222]^[223] Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan.^[224]^[225] Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, – slow-moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless."^[226] Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like."^[227] Brian Leiter wrote that "Given the complexity of the law and the complexity involved in saying what really happened in a given dispute, all judges, and especially those on the Supreme Court, often have to exercise a quasi-legislative power," and "Supreme Court nominations are controversial because the court is a super-legislature, and because its moral and political judgments are controversial."^[228]

Failing to protect individual rights

Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery;^[229] Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal;^[230] Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights.^[231]^[232] Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters" by siding with Indiana's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters", according to one report.^[233] Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights".^[227] However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was "limited" to sovereign territory.^[234]

Too much power

This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance".^[235] It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009.^[272] A reporter wrote that "Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy" left open the "possibility of further judicial review" but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch.^[236] Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power" it is likely to "self-indulge itself" and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis".^[237] Larry Sabato wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court."^[238]

Courts are poor check on executive power

British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.^[239]^[240] In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.

Federal versus state power

There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison^[241] and Alexander Hamilton^[242] argued in The Federalist Papers that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,^[243]^[244]^[245]^[246] others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.^[247] The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.^[248] Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution".^[249] Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad".^[250] Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today.^[249] Advocates of states' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy.^[251] One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law."^[252] However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level".^[253] More recently, the issue of federal power is central in the prosecution of Gamble v. United States, which is examining the doctrine of "separate sovereigns", whereby a criminal defendant can be prosecuted by a state court and then by a federal court.^[254]^[255]

Secretive proceedings

The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.^[256] According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin's expose Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed 'cartel', only revealing itself through 'public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings.'^[295] The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives."^[295] Larry Sabato complains about the Court's "insularity".^[238] A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61% of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.^[257]^[258] In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists.^[259]^[260] In a 2009 interview on C-SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a "very open" institution with only the justices' private conferences inaccessible to others.^[259] In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.

Judicial interference in political disputes

Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals.^[261]^[262]^[263]^[264]^[265]^[266] Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a "scathing dissent" argued against the court wading into so-called political questions.^[267]

Not choosing enough cases to review

Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should "decide more cases".^[227] On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.^[259]

Lifetime tenure

Critic Larry Sabato wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day."^[238] Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity.^[268] James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times".^[222] Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson^[269] and Sabato^[238]^[270] as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein,^[271] among others.^[272] However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office."^[273]

Accepting gifts

The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday.^[274] Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors.^[275] Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications.^[276] Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial."^[275]

See also

Landmark Supreme Court decisions (selection)

References

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2. ^{{cite web|last1=Safire|first1=William|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/magazine/on-language-potus-and-flotus.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=On language: POTUS and FLOTUS|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 12, 1997|accessdate=August 27, 2013}}
3. ^¹{{cite web| title=About the Supreme Court| url=http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/about-educational-outreach/activity-resources/about| publisher=Administrative Office of the United States Courts| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
4. ^{{Cite web| last=Turley| first=Jonathan|title=Essays on Article III: Good Behavior Clause| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/3/essays/104/good-behavior-clause| work= Heritage Guide to the Constitution| publisher=The Heritage Foundation| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
5. ^{{Cite web| last=Pushaw Jr.| first=Robert J.| title=Essays on Article III: Judicial Vesting Clause| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/3/essays/102/judicial-vesting-clause| work= Heritage Guide to the Constitution| publisher=The Heritage Foundation| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
6. ^{{Cite web| last=Watson| first=Bradley C. S.| title=Essays on Article III: Supreme Court| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/3/essays/103/supreme-court| work= Heritage Guide to the Constitution| publisher=The Heritage Foundation| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
7. ^¹{{cite web| title=The Court as an Institution| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/institution.aspx| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
8. ^{{cite web|title=Supreme Court Nominations: present–1789|url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm|publisher=Office of the Secretary, United States Senate|location=Washington, D.C.|accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
9. ^{{cite web| last=Hodak| first=George| title=February 2, 1790: Supreme Court Holds Inaugural Session| url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/february_2_1790_supreme_court_holds_inaugural_session/| website=abajournal.com| publisher=American Bar Association| location=Chicago, Illinois| date=February 1, 2011| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
10. ^{{cite book| last=Pigott| first=Robert| title=New York's Legal Landmarks: A Guide to Legal Edifices, Institutions, Lore, History, and Curiosities on the City's Streets| year=2014| publisher=Attorney Street Editions| location=New York| page=7| isbn=978-0-61599-283-9}}
11. ^{{cite web| title=Building History| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/buildinghistory.aspx| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=September 3, 2018}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/datesofdecisions.pdf|title=Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2–107 (1791–82)|last=Ashmore|first=Anne|date=August 2006|publisher=Library, Supreme Court of the United States|accessdate=April 26, 2009}}
13. ^Shugerman, Jed. "A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court," Georgia Law Review, Vol. 37, p. 893 (2002–03).
14. ^Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court, p. 101 (Penguin 2006).
15. ^{{cite news | author = Scott Douglas Gerber (editor) | title = Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall | quote = (page 3) Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige. | publisher = New York University Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0tEkU5LiYsQC&pg=PA1 | isbn = 0-8147-3114-7| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
16. ^{{cite journal| last=Manning| first=John F.| year=2004| title=The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts| journal=Yale Law Journal| volume=113| issue=8| pages=1663–1750| doi=10.2307/4135780| authorlink=John F. Manning| jstor=4135780}}
17. ^{{cite news| first= Garrett|last= Epps| title = Don't Do It, Justices| quote = The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected| newspaper=The Washington Post| date=October 24, 2004| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56446-2004Oct23.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
18. ^The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case Ware v. Hylton, (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain.
19. ^{{cite news| first= Jeffrey|last= Rosen |format= book review of Packing the Court by James MacGregor Burns| title = Black Robe Politics| quote = From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its "supremacy" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's "brilliant political coup" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.| work =The Washington Post| date = July 5, 2009| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070202033.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
20. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm|title=The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)|work=U.S. News & World Report|year=2003|quote=With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of "checks and balances" created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030920031130/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm|archivedate=September 20, 2003|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
21. ^{{cite news| first1= Cliff |last1=Sloan |first2= David |last2=McKean| title = Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters| quote = More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.| work = Newsweek| date = February 21, 2009| url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/185803| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
22. ^{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1893/02/27/106861891.pdf| title=The Constitution in Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court| date=February 27, 1893| format=PDF| quote=The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...|newspaper=The New York Times| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
23. ^{{cite journal| date=December 13, 2000|title=Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore| url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/vote2000/pres246.htm| quote=Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).| author=Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Souter, Breyer| journal=USA Today| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
24. ^¹{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/03/105757962.pdf| title=Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred an Eleven Years| date=February 3, 1901| work=The New York Times| format=PDF| quote=Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
25. ^¹{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2¬Found=true| archive-url=https://archive.today/20120530060153/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2¬Found=true|dead-url=yes| archive-date=May 30, 2012| title=The Supreme Quiz| date=October 2, 2000| quote=According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions—each issuing one—so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual "concurring" and "dissenting" opinions.| newspaper=The Washington Post| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
26. ^{{cite news| url=https://blogs.wsj.com/law/2008/04/18/justice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled/| title=Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled| last=Slater| first=Dan| date=April 18, 2008| quote=The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.| newspaper=The Wall Street Journal| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
27. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1867783,00.html|title=A Brief History of Impeachment| last=Suddath| first=Claire| date=December 19, 2008| work=Time| quote=Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime—he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
28. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/10/us/rehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html| title=Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda|date=April 10, 1996| work=The New York Times| quote=the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said| accessdate=October 31, 2009| authorlink=Linda Greenhouse}}
29. ^{{cite news| author1=Edward Keynes |author2=with Randall K. Miller | title=The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion| quote=(page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.| publisher=Duke University Press| year=1989| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ebb2wsxkF4C&pg=PA115| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
30. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/05/27/sotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html| title=Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense| last=Ifill| first=Sherrilyn A.| date=May 27, 2009| work=U.S. News & World Report| quote=But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had "no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect," has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
31. ^{{cite book| last1=Irons| first1=Peter| title=A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution| publisher=Penguin Books| year=2006| location=United States| pages=176–177| quote=The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p. 176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p. 177)| isbn=978-0-14-303738-5}}
32. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm| title=Liberty of Contract?| date=October 31, 2009| publisher=Exploring Constitutional Conflicts| quote=The term "substantive due process" is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.| accessdate=October 31, 2009| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122031228/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm| archivedate=November 22, 2009| df=mdy-all}}
33. ^{{cite news| title=Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161| quote=No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 – Decided: January 27, 1908| publisher = Cornell University Law School| year = 1908| url = https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/208/161| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
34. ^{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/?id=L-_9mFCeBSIC&pg=PA245| title=The Bill of Rights in modern America|last=Bodenhamer|first=David J.|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-253-35159-3|location=Bloomington, Indiana|page=245|quote=… of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.|author2=James W. Ely}}
35. ^{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=245&invol=366 | title=Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366 |first=Edward Douglass |last=White|authorlink=Edward Douglass White|quote=Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.}}
36. ^{{cite book| first= Bernard H. | last= Siegan| title = The Supreme Court's Constitution| quote = In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p. 146)| publisher = Transaction Publishers| year = 1987| url = https://books.google.com/?id=XABdIe1foccC&pg=PA146| accessdate = October 31, 2009| isbn = 978-0-88738-671-8| page = 146}}
37. ^{{cite news| first= Joan |last=Biskupic| title = Supreme Court gets makeover| quote = The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.| work = USA Today| url = https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm| accessdate=October 31, 2009| date=March 29, 2005| authorlink = Joan Biskupic}}
38. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22west+coast+hotel+co.+v.+parrish%22+(site%3Anewsweek.com+OR+site%3Apost-gazette.com+OR+site%3Ausatoday.com+OR+site%3Awashingtonpost.com+OR+site%3Atime.com+OR+site%3Areuters.com+OR+site%3Aeconomist.com+OR+site%3Amiamiherald.com+OR+site%3Alatimes.com+OR+site%3Asfgate.com+OR+site%3Achicagotribune.com+OR+site%3Anytimes.com+OR+site%3Awsj.com+OR+site%3Ausnews.com+OR+site%3Amsnbc.com+OR+site%3Anj.com+OR+site%3Atheatlantic.com)&aq=o&oq=&aqi=|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130124221124/http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu:en-US:unofficial&q=%22west+coast+hotel+co.+v.+parrish%22+(site:newsweek.com+OR+site:post-gazette.com+OR+site:usatoday.com+OR+site:washingtonpost.com+OR+site:time.com+OR+site:reuters.com+OR+site:economist.com+OR+site:miamiherald.com+OR+site:latimes.com+OR+site:sfgate.com+OR+site:chicagotribune.com+OR+site:nytimes.com+OR+site:wsj.com+OR+site:usnews.com+OR+site:msnbc.com+OR+site:nj.com+OR+site:theatlantic.com)&aq=o&oq=&aqi=|dead-url=yes|archive-date=January 24, 2013|title=Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden| date=September 21, 2005| work=The Washington Post|quote=I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. Lochner era cases—Adkins in particular—evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers.|author=Justice Roberts|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
39. ^{{cite news|url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358|title=All the News That's Fit to Subsidize|last=Lipsky|first=Seth|date=October 22, 2009|work=Wall Street Journal|quote=He was a farmer in Ohio ... during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow—even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
40. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/14/opinion/14tue4.html|title=What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal| last=Cohen| first=Adam| date=December 14, 2004|work=The New York Times|quote=Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard ... for paving the way for strong federal action...|accessdate=October 31, 2009|authorlink=Adam Cohen (journalist)}}
41. ^{{cite news| author = United Press International| title = Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years| quote = Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states.| work =The New York Times| date = September 25, 1971| url = https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0227.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
42. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm| title=100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)|date=May 17, 1954|work=U.S. News & World Report|quote=On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the "separate but equal" … and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement...|accessdate=October 31, 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091106035101/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm|archivedate=November 6, 2009}}
43. ^{{cite news| title = Essay: In defense of privacy| quote = The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the "right of privacy" to be derived from the Constitution itself.| work=Time| date = July 15, 1966| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836012-3,00.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
44. ^{{cite news| first= Nancy |last=Gibbs| title = America's Holy War| quote = In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. "It is no part of the business of government," ruled the court, "to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite."| work = Time| date = December 9, 1991| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974430,00.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009| authorlink = Nancy Gibbs}}
45. ^{{cite news| url=http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html| title=Teach the Bible? Of course.| date=August 17, 2009|work=USA Today|last2=Trinko|first2=Katrina|quote=Public schools need not proselytize—indeed, must not—in teaching students about the Good Book … In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that "study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education," was permissible under the First Amendment.|first1=William R., Jr| last1=Mattox| accessdate=October 31, 2009| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820030545/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html| archivedate=August 20, 2009}}
46. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898882,00.html|title=The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle|date=June 18, 1965|work=Time Magazine|quote=Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961).|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
47. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,841844,00.html| title=The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment| date=April 16, 1965| work=Time| quote=Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). … the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts." But in the light of Gideon … ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.'|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
48. ^{{cite news| title = Guilt and Mr. Meese| quote = 1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it.| work =The New York Times| date = January 31, 1987| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/31/opinion/guilt-and-mr-meese.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
49. ^{{cite journal|journal=Engage|volume=9|issue=3|url=http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf|title=The Antitrust Revolution|last=Graglia|first=Lino A.|authorlink=Lino Graglia|date=October 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/60x4Lmsdz?url=http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf|archivedate=August 15, 2011|deadurl=yes|accessdate=February 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}}
50. ^Earl M. Maltz, The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law (University Press of Kansas; 2016)
51. ^{{cite news| first=Karen |last=O'Connor| title=Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight| quote=The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy...| work=U.S. News & World Report| date=January 22, 2009| url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/01/22/roe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
52. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946798,00.html| title=Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose| date=July 10, 1978| work=Time| quote=Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'…| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
53. ^{{cite news| title=Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo| quote=...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.| work =The New York Times| date = November 12, 1998| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/12/opinion/time-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
54. ^¹{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/rehnquist/rehnquist_key_decisions.html| title=Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions| date=June 29, 1972| work=The Washington Post|quote=Furman v. Georgia … Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional.|author=Staff writer|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
55. ^History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds) The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-19-505835-6}}
56. ^{{cite news| title = A Supreme Revelation| quote = Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous "never mind" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier.|work=The Wall Street Journal| date = April 19, 2008| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120856145124627875?mod=opinion_main_review_and_outlooks| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
57. ^{{cite news|first=Linda |last=Greenhouse|title=The Chief Justice on the Spot|quote=The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments.|work=The New York Times| date=January 8, 2009| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09greenhouse.html| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
58. ^{{cite news|first=Linda |last=Greenhouse|title=William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80|quote=United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school.|work=The New York Times |date=September 4, 2005|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E2DF1531F937A3575AC0A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=5|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
59. ^{{cite news| first= Linda |last=Greenhouse|title=The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy|quote=Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison.|work=The New York Times|date=June 12, 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/12/weekinreview/12green.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
60. ^{{cite news|first=Linda |last=Greenhouse|title=Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally|quote=His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states.|work=The New York Times|date=March 22, 2005|url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E6DC1F3CF931A15750C0A9639C8B63|accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
61. ^{{cite news| first= Vikram David |last=Amar|title=Casing John Roberts|quote=Seminole Tribe v. Florida (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result.|work=The New York Times|date=July 27, 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27amar.html|accessdate=October 31, 2009|authorlink=Vikram David Amar}}
62. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/01/us/justices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html|title=Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism|last=Greenhouse|first=Linda|date=April 1, 1999| work=The New York Times|quote=The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface … On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
63. ^{{cite news|first=Michael A.|last=Lindenberger|title= The Court's Gay Rights Legacy|quote=The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals.|work=Time |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1818504,00.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}
64. ^{{cite news| url=http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html|title=Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' – The 'Roe' recital|date=July 16, 2009|work=USA Today|quote=The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court.|author=Justice Sotomayor|accessdate=October 31, 2009| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822073852/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html| archivedate=August 22, 2009}}
65. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.salon.com/2001/07/05/dershowitz_2/|title=Against the Law| last=Kamiya| first=Gary| date=July 4, 2001| work=Salon|quote=...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. … It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. …|accessdate=November 21, 2012}}
66. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998788,00.html|title=The Winner in Bush v. Gore?|last=Krauthammer|first=Charles|date=December 18, 2000|work=Time|quote=Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. … the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks—and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, …|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}
67. ^{{cite news|first1=Charles|last1=Babington |first2=Peter|last2=Baker|title=Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice| quote = John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court.|work=The Washington Post|date=September 30, 2005|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092900859.html|accessdate=November 1, 2009}}
68. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/washington/01scotus.html|title=In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right|last=Greenhouse|first=Linda|date=July 1, 2007|work=The New York Times| quote=It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared … This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small.| accessdate=November 1, 2009}}
69. ^{{cite news | first = Adam | last = Liptak | title = Court Under Roberts Is Most Conservative in Decades | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/25/us/25roberts.html | work = New York Times | location = New York, New York | date = 2010-07-24 | quote = When Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and his colleagues on the Supreme Court left for their summer break at the end of June, they marked a milestone: the Roberts court had just completed its fifth term. In those five years, the court not only moved to the right but also became the most conservative one in living memory, based on an analysis of four sets of political science data.| accessdate = 2019-02-01 }}
70. ^{{cite news | first = Lincoln | last = Caplan | date = 2016-10-10 | title = A new era for the Supreme Court: the transformative potential of a shift in even one seat | url = https://prospect.org/article/new-era-supreme-court | work = The American Prospect | quote = The Court has gotten increasingly more conservative with each of the Republican-appointed chief justices—Warren E. Burger (1969–1986), William H. Rehnquist (1986–2005), and John G. Roberts Jr. (2005–present). All told, Republican presidents have appointed 12 of the 16 most recent justices, including the chiefs. During Roberts's first decade as chief, the Court was the most conservative in more than a half-century and likely the most conservative since the 1930s. | accessdate = 2019-02-01}}
71. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/politics/15abortion.html| title=Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled|last=Savage|first=Charlie|date=July 14, 2009|work=The New York Times|quote=Gonzales v. Carhart—in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call "partial birth abortion"—to be settled law.|accessdate=November 1, 2009|authorlink=Charlie Savage}}
72. ^{{cite journal |title=A Bad Day for Democracy |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0122/Supreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy|accessdate=January 22, 2010|date=2010-01-22 }}
73. ^{{cite news|first=Robert |last=Barnes|title=Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights|quote=The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller...|work=The Washington Post|date=October 1, 2009|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/30/AR2009093001723.html|accessdate=November 1, 2009}}
74. ^{{cite news|first=Linda |last=Greenhouse|title=Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment| quote=His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic.|work=The New York Times|date=April 18, 2008|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/washington/18memo.html| accessdate = November 1, 2009}}
75. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html|title=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape|last=Greenhouse|first=Linda|date=June 26, 2008|work=The New York Times|quote=The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday … The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states.|accessdate=November 1, 2009}}
76. ^Federal Judiciary Act (1789), National Archives and Records Administration, retrieved September 12, 2017
77. ^{{usstat|16|44}}
78. ^{{cite web|last=Mintz |first=S. |title=The New Deal in Decline |work=Digital History |publisher=University of Houston |year=2007 |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479 |accessdate=October 27, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505032845/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479 |archivedate=May 5, 2008 }}
79. ^{{cite web |last=Hodak |first=George |title=February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan |work=ABAjournal.com |publisher=American Bar Association |year=2007 |url=http://abajournal.com/magazine/article/february_5_1937/ |accessdate=January 29, 2009}}
80. ^"Justices, Number of," in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press 1992, {{ISBN|0-19-505835-6}}
81. ^See Article Two of the United States Constitution.
82. ^{{cite web| url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm| title=United States Senate. "Nominations"}}
83. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/sen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court/ |title=Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court |work=The Seattle Times |author=Jim Brunner |date=March 24, 2017| access-date=April 9, 2017|quote=In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist – and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's "deeply troubled" by Gorsuch's "extreme conservative perspective on women's health", citing his "inability" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the "Hobby Lobby" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.}}
84. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/06/us/politics/neil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html |publisher=The New York Times |date=April 6, 2017|author=Matt Flegenheimer|title=Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch|quote=After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.}}
85. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789 |publisher=United States Senate| access-date=April 8, 2017}}
86. ^See {{usc|5|2902}}.
87. ^{{usc|28|4}}. If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence.
88. ^{{cite web|last=Balkin |first=Jack M. |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php |title=The passionate intensity of the confirmation process |accessdate=February 13, 2008 |publisher=Jurist |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218235804/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php |archivedate=December 18, 2007 }}
89. ^{{cite news| title=The Stakes of the 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c| work=The Huffington Post |access-date=February 14, 2016}}
90. ^{{cite web| url=https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44234.pdf| title=Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote| date=October 19, 2015| access-date=February 14, 2016| website=Congressional Research Service| publisher = |last=McMillion| first=Barry J.}}
91. ^{{cite book| title=Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States|publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1992| isbn=978-0-19-505835-2|editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.| pages=965–971|chapter=Appendix Two}}
92. ^See, e.g., Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of William Pryor. Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved "the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century" 544 U.S. 942 (2005) (Stevens, J., concurring in denial of cert) (internal quotation marks deleted).
93. ^¹{{cite journal| last=Fisher| first=Louis| date=September 5, 2001| title=Recess Appointments of Federal Judges|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL31112.pdf|journal=CRSN Report for Congress|series=Congressional Research Service| volume=RL31112| page=16| quote=Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.|accessdate=August 6, 2010}}
94. ^The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48–4, and Republicans opposed it 33–0.
95. ^{{cite web| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/13pdf/12-1281_mc8p.pdf|title=National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al|pages=34, 35}} The Court continued, "In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here." Later, the opinion states: "For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares."
96. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/15/466849025/white-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia|title=Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week|newspaper=NPR| language=en|access-date=January 25, 2017}}
97. ^{{cite web | title=How the Federal Courts Are Organized: Can a federal judge be fired? |url=http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=/federal/courts.nsf/page/A783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214?opendocument |publisher=Federal Judicial Center. fjc.gov |accessdate=March 18, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915143136/http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=%2Ffederal%2Fcourts.nsf%2Fpage%2FA783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214%3Fopendocument |archivedate=September 15, 2012 |df= }}
98. ^{{cite web| title=History of the Federal Judiciary: Impeachments of Federal Judges| url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges_impeachments.html| publisher=Federal Judicial Center fjc.gov| accessdate=March 18, 2012}}
99. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacob-m-appel/anticipating-the-incapaci_b_266179.html|title=Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice|last=Appel|first=Jacob M.|date=August 22, 2009|work=The Huffington Post|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}
100. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court |title=How Presidents Influence the Court |last=Ali |first=Ambreen |date=June 16, 2010 |work=Congress.org |accessdate=June 16, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618174203/http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court |archivedate=June 18, 2010 }}
101. ^¹{{cite web|title=Current Members| website=supremecourt.gov| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/biographies.aspx#BKavanaugh| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=October 21, 2018}}
102. ^{{cite web| last1=Walthr| first1=Matthew| title=Sam Alito: A Civil Man| url=https://spectator.org/58731_sam-alito-civil-man/| work=The American Spectator| accessdate=June 15, 2017| date=April 21, 2014| via=The ANNOTICO Reports}}
103. ^{{cite news| last1=DeMarco| first1=Megan| title=Growing up Italian in Jersey: Alito reflects on ethnic heritage| url=http://www.italystl.com/ra/3788.htm| accessdate=June 15, 2017| work=The Times| location=Trenton, New Jersey| date=February 14, 2008| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730160055/http://www.italystl.com/ra/3788.htm| archivedate=July 30, 2017| df=mdy-all}}
104. ^{{cite web|last1=Halberstam| first1=Malvina| title=Ruth Bader Ginsburg|url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ginsburg-ruth-bader| website=Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia| publisher=Jewish Women's Archive| accessdate=June 15, 2017|date=March 1, 2009}}
105. ^Neil Gorsuch was raised Catholic, but attends an Episcopalian church. It is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. {{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/18/politics/neil-gorsuch-religion/| publisher=CNN| title=What is Neil Gorsuch's religion? It's complicated| first=Daniel| last=Burke| date=March 22, 2017 |quote=Springer said she doesn't know whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. "I have no evidence that Judge Gorsuch considers himself an Episcopalian, and likewise no evidence that he does not." Gorsuch's younger brother, J.J., said he too has "no idea how he would fill out a form. He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years."}}
106. ^{{cite news| last=Baker| first=Peter| title=Kagan Is Sworn in as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court| work=The New York Times| date=August 7, 2010| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/08/us/08kagan.html| accessdate=August 8, 2010}}
107. ^Mark Sherman, Is Supreme Court in need of regional diversity? (May 1, 2010).
108. ^{{cite news |last1=Shane |first1=Scott |last2=Eder |first2=Steve |last3=Ruiz |first3=Rebecca R. |last4=Liptak |first4=Adam |last5=Savage |first5=Charlie |last6=Protess |first6=Ben |title=Influential Judge, Loyal Friend, Conservative Warrior – and D.C. Insider |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/14/us/politics/judge-brett-kavanaugh.html |work=The New York Times |date=July 15, 2018 |page=A1 |accessdate=July 16, 2018}}
109. ^{{cite book|last=O'Brien | first=David M.|title=Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics |edition=6th |year=2003 |page=46 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-93218-8}}
110. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_sc.html|title = Religion of the Supreme Court|publisher=adherents.com|date=January 31, 2006|accessdate=July 9, 2010}}
111. ^{{cite book| first1=Jeffrey A.| last1=Segal| first2=Harold J.| last2=Spaeth| title=The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press. |year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-78971-4|page=183}}
112. ^{{cite encyclopedia| last1=Schumacher| first1=Alvin| title=Roger B. Taney| url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-B-Taney| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica| accessdate=May 3, 2017| quote=He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court.}}
113. ^{{cite news| last1=de Vogue| first1=Ariane| title=Clarence Thomas' Supreme Court legacy| url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/22/politics/clarence-thomas-supreme-court-25-years/| accessdate=May 3, 2017| work=CNN| date=October 22, 2016}}
114. ^¹{{cite web| title=The Four Justices| url=http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices| website=Smithsonian Institution| accessdate=May 3, 2017| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820153726/http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices| archivedate=August 20, 2016| dead-url=no}}
115. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web| title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| accessdate=May 3, 2017| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320120356/https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12| archivedate=March 20, 2017| df=mdy-all}}
116. ^David N. Atkinson, Leaving the Bench (University Press of Kansas 1999) {{ISBN|0-7006-0946-6}}
117. ^{{cite news| url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/an-invisible-chief-justice/| title=An Invisible Chief Justice| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda| date=September 9, 2010| work=The New York Times| quote=Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. […] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home.| authorlink=Linda Greenhouse| accessdate=September 9, 2010}}
118. ^{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Artemus|title= Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn= 978-0-7914-5651-4|year=2003|page=358|url= http://www.sunypress.edu/p-3721-deciding-to-leave.aspx|quote=One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute. p. 9}}
119. ^{{cite journal| last2=Lindgren| first2=James| date=May 2010| title=Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices| journal=Demography| volume=47| issue=2| pages=269–298| doi=10.1353/dem.0.0100|pmc=3000028| pmid=20608097| quote=If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met.| last1=Stolzenberg| first1=Ross M.}}
120. ^See for example Sandra Day O'Connor:How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice, by Joan Biskupic, Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice by Clare Cushman, Journal of Supreme Court History 32 no. 3 (2008), pp. 282–296.
121. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1199873130560| title= Breyer Just Missed Record as Junior Justice| accessdate=January 11, 2008}}
122. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation| title=Judicial Compensation| work=United States Courts| accessdate=May 15, 2017|df=}}
123. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/20/take-look-through-neil-gorsuchs-judicial-record.html| title=Take a look through Neil Gorsuch's judicial record|date=March 20, 2017| work=Fox News | first=Bill| last=Mears| quote=A Fox News analysis of that record – including some 3,000 rulings he has been involved with – reveals a solid, predictable conservative philosophy, something President Trump surely was attuned to when he nominated him to fill the open ninth seat. The record in many ways mirrors the late Justice Antonin Scalia's approach to constitutional and statutory interpretation.}}
124. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/09/05/its-hard-to-find-a-federal-judge-more-conservative-than-brett-kavanaugh|title=It's hard to find a federal judge more conservative than Brett Kavanaugh|date=September 5, 2018|first1=Kevin|last1=Cope|first2=Joshua|last2=Fischman|work=Washington Post|quote=Kavanaugh served a dozen years on the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, a court viewed as first among equals of the 12 federal appellate courts. Probing nearly 200 of Kavanaugh's votes and over 3000 votes by his judicial colleagues, our analysis shows that his judicial record is significantly more conservative than that of almost every other judge on the D.C. Circuit. That doesn't mean that he’d be the most conservative justice on the Supreme Court, but it strongly suggests that he is no judicial moderate.}}
125. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-nominates-brett-kavanaugh-to-supreme-court|title=Trump nominates Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court|work=Fox News|date=July 9, 2018|first=Samuel|last=Chamberlain|quote=Trump may have been swayed in part because of Kavanaugh's record of being a reliable conservative on the court – and reining in dozens of administrative decisions of the Obama White House. There are some question marks for conservatives, particularly an ObamaCare ruling years ago.}}
126. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/06/everything-you-read-about-the-supreme-court-is-wrong/| last=Goldstein| first=Tom| authorlink=Tom Goldstein| title=Everything you read about the Supreme Court is wrong (except here, maybe) |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2010 |accessdate=July 7, 2010}}
127. ^Among the examples mentioned by Goldstein for the 2009 term were* {{ussc|name=Dolan v. United States|560|605|2010}}, which interpreted judges' prerogatives broadly, typically a "conservative" result. The majority consisted of the five junior Justices: Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, Alito, and Sotomayor.* {{ussc|name=Magwood v. Patterson|561|320|2010}}, which expanded habeas corpus petitions, a "liberal" result, in an opinion by Thomas, joined by Stevens, Scalia, Breyer, and Sotomayor.* {{ussc|name=Shady Grove Orthopedic Associates, P. A. v. Allstate Ins. Co.|559|393|2010}}, which yielded a pro-plaintiff result in an opinion by Scalia joined by Roberts, Stevens, Thomas, and Sotomayor.Goldstein notes that in the 2009 term, the justice most consistently pro-government was Alito, and not the commonly perceived "arch-conservatives" Scalia and Thomas.
128. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_five-to-four_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 2011 Term, Five to Four Decisions |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 }}
129. ^¹{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/06/final-october-term-2010-stat-pack-available/| title=Final October 2010 Stat Pack available| publisher=SCOTUSblog| date=June 27, 2011| accessdate=June 28, 2011}}
130. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/SB_Summary_Memo_OT10.pdf|title=End of Term statistical analysis – October 2010| date=July 1, 2011| publisher=SCOTUSblog| accessdate=July 2, 2011}}
131. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_votesplit_OT10_final.pdf |title=Cases by Vote Split |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate =June 28, 2011 }}
132. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_highs_and_lows_OT10_final.pdf| title=Justice agreement – Highs and Lows |date=June 27, 2011 |publisher=SCOTUSblog |accessdate=June 28, 2011}}
133. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_OT10_final.pdf |title=Justice agreement |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 }}
134. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_frequency_OT10_final.pdf |title=Frequency in the majority |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 }}
135. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_five-to-four_OT10_final.pdf |title=Five-to-Four cases |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 }}
136. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_votesplit_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 2011 term, Cases by votes split |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 }}
137. ^{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_strength_of_the_majority_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 2011 term, Strength of the Majority |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 }}
138. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.scotusblog.com/2013/06/october-term-2012-summary-memo/ |title=October Term 2012 summary memo |first=Kedar S.|last=Bhatia |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 29, 2013 |accessdate=June 29, 2013 }}
139. ^{{cite web |url=http://scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/SCOTUSblog_Stat_Pack_OT12.pdf |title=Final October Term 2012 Stat Pack |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2013 |accessdate=June 27, 2013 }}
140. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2018/06/final-october-term-2017-stat-pack-and-key-takeaways/#more-272264|title=Final October Term 2017 Stat Pack and key takeaways|first=Kedar|last=Bhatia|publisher=SCOTUSBlog|date=June 29, 2018|accessdate=June 29, 2018 }}
141. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/SB_Stat_Pack_2018.06.29.pdf|title=Stat Pack for October Term 2017|first=Kedar S.|last=Bhatia|publisher=SCOTUSBlog|date=June 29, 2018|accessdate=June 29, 2018|pages=17–18}}
142. ^{{cite web |title=Visiting-Capitol-Hill |publisher=docstoc |date=October 24, 2009 |url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill |accessdate=October 24, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821011148/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill |archivedate=August 21, 2016 }}
143. ^¹²{{cite web| title=Visiting the Court| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| date=March 18, 2010| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/visiting.aspx| accessdate=March 19, 2010}}
144. ^{{cite web| title=How The Court Works| publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society| date = October 24, 2009| url=http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/visiting-the-court/| accessdate=January 31, 2014}}
145. ^¹²³{{cite news| title=Plan Your Trip (quote:) "In mid-May, after the oral argument portion of the Term has concluded, the Court takes the Bench Mondays at 10AM for the release of orders and opinions."| publisher=US Senator John McCain| date=October 24, 2009| url=http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=VisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip#supremecourt| accessdate=October 24, 2009}}
146. ^{{USCSub|28|1251|a}}
147. ^{{cite news| last1=Liptak| first1=Adam| title=Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/22/us/politics/supreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html?_r=0| accessdate=April 27, 2017| work=The New York Times| date=March 21, 2016}}
148. ^{{USCSub|28|1251|b}}
149. ^{{cite court |litigants=United States v. Shipp |vol=203 |reporter=U.S. |opinion=563 |pinpoint= |court=Supreme Court of the United States |date=1906 |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/203/563 |accessdate= |quote=}}
150. ^¹²{{cite web|last1=Curriden|first1=Mark|title=A Supreme Case of Contempt|url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/a_supreme_case_of_contempt|website=ABA Journal|publisher=American Bar Association|accessdate=April 27, 2017|date=June 2, 2009|quote=On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history.}}
151. ^¹{{cite journal| last1=Hindley| first1=Meredith| title=Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson| journal=Humanities| date=November 2014| volume=35| issue=6| url=https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2014/novemberdecember/feature/chattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court| accessdate=April 27, 2017| quote=United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial.}}
152. ^{{cite web| last1=Linder| first1=Douglas| title=United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)| url=http://www.famous-trials.com/sheriffshipp/1117-shippcase| website=Famous Trials| accessdate=April 27, 2017}}
153. ^{{USC|28|1254}}
154. ^{{USC|28|1259}}
155. ^{{USC|28|1258}}
156. ^{{USC|28|1260}}
157. ^¹{{USC|28|1257}}
158. ^{{cite journal| last1=Brannock| first1=Steven| last2=Weinzierl| first2=Sarah| title=Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall| journal=Stetson Law Review| date=2003| volume=XXXII| pages=368–369, 387–390| url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/confronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf| accessdate=April 27, 2017}}
159. ^{{cite web|url=http://supreme.justia.com/us/489/288/case.html|title=Teague v. Lane 489 U.S. 288 (1989)|publisher=}}
160. ^{{cite web| last1=Gutman| first1=Jeffrey| title=Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness| url=http://federalpracticemanual.org/chapter3/section3| website=Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys| publisher=Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law| accessdate=April 27, 2017}}
161. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.supremecourthistory.org/assets/schs_publications-circuitriding.pdf|title=On the road: The Supreme Court and the history of circuit riding|last=Glick|first=Joshua|journal=Cardozo Law Review|volume=24|date=April 2003|access-date=2018-09-24|quote="Gradually, however, circuit riding lost support. The Court's increasing business in the nation's capital following the Civil War made the circuit riding seem anachronistic and impractical and a slow shift away from the practice began. The Judiciary Act of 1869 established a separate circuit court judiciary. The justices retained nominal circuit riding duties until 1891 when the Circuit Court of Appeals Act was passed. With the Judicial Code of 1911, Congress officially ended the practice. The struggle between the legislative and judicial branches over circuit riding was finally concluded."}}
162. ^[https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/101918zr_21o3.pdf Allotment Order dated October 19, 2018].
163. ^{{usc|28|1254}}
164. ^{{usc|28|1257}}; see also Adequate and independent state grounds
165. ^{{cite journal| last=James| first=Robert A.| title=Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials| journal=The Green Bag| year=1998| volume=1| series=2d| issue=4| url=http://www.greenbag.org/v1n4/v1n4_articles_james.pdf| accessdate=February 5, 2013| page=378}}
166. ^{{usc|28|1872}} See Georgia v. Brailsford, {{ussc|3|1|1794}}, in which the Court conducted a jury trial.
167. ^{{Cite journal|last=Shelfer|first=Lochlan F.|date=October 2013|title=Special Juries in the Supreme Court|url=https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/special-juries-in-the-supreme-court|dead-url=no|journal=Yale Law Journal|volume=123|issue=1|pages=208–252|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630133808/https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/special-juries-in-the-supreme-court|archive-date=June 30, 2017|access-date=October 2, 2018|via=}}
168. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1129799113829| title=Roberts Dips Toe into Cert Pool| first=Tony| last=Mauro| work=Legal Times| date=October 21, 2005| accessdate=October 31, 2007}}
169. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1144330162287| title=Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party| first=Tony| last=Mauro| work=Legal Times| date=July 4, 2006|accessdate=October 31, 2007}}
170. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/washington/26memo.html?ex=1380168000&en=d58acbfb583fd4f2&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink| title=A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool'| first=Adam | last=Liptak| work=The New York Times| date=September 25, 2008| accessdate=October 17, 2008}}
171. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/gorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html| title=Gorsuch, in sign of independence, is out of Supreme Court's clerical pool| first=Adam| last=Liptak| work=The New York Times| date=May 1, 2017| accessdate=May 2, 2017}}
172. ^For example, the arguments on the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for Bush v. Gore were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in United States v. Nixon lasted three hours; and the Pentagon papers case was given a two-hour argument. {{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2011/11/15/142363047/obamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever |title='Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever |last=Christy |first=Andrew |date=November 15, 2011 |accessdate=March 31, 2011 |publisher=NPR}}The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of California v. Arizona, in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962.{{cite web|url=http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/oral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years |title=Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years |last=Bobic |first=Igor|date=March 26, 2012 |accessdate=January 31, 2014 |publisher=Talking Points Memo}}
173. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.floridabar.org/divcom/jn/jnjournal01.nsf/Articles/0616A0059B6778BB85256ADB005D6106| title=Joining the Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court| publisher=Florida Bar Journal| work=Volume LXXI, No. 2| date=February 1997| accessdate=February 3, 2014| last1=Glazer| first1=Eric M.| last2=Zachary| first2=Michael| page=63}}
174. ^{{cite news |first=Jessica |last=Gresko |title=For lawyers, the Supreme Court bar is vanity trip |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432#.UU-ctDf75QI |newspaper=Florida Today |location=Melbourne, Florida |pages=2A |date=March 24, 2013 |id= |accessdate= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323073447/http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432 |archivedate=March 23, 2013 }}
175. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/library-support/| title=How The Court Works; Library Support| publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society| accessdate=February 3, 2014}}
176. ^See generally, Tushnet, Mark, ed. (2008) I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases, Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, {{ISBN|978-0-8070-0036-6}}
177. ^{{cite web|last1=Kessler|first1=Robert|title=Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/case-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings/316876/|publisher=The Atlantic|accessdate=March 24, 2017}}
178. ^{{cite web| last1=Johnson| first1=Benny| title=The 2016 Running of the Interns| url=http://ijr.com/2016/06/637664-the-2016-running-of-the-interns/| publisher=Independent Journal Review| accessdate=March 24, 2017}}
179. ^{{usc|28|1}}
180. ^{{usc|28|2109}}
181. ^{{cite book| title=Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice| last2=Richards| first2=Daniel L.| last3=Norman| first3=George| publisher=South-Western College Publishing| year=1999| location=Cincinnati| pages=11–12| last1=Pepall| first1=Lynne}}
182. ^{{cite web |title=Bound Volumes |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes.aspx |publisher=Supreme Court of the United States |accessdate=January 9, 2019}}
183. ^{{cite journal |title=Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October Term, 2012 – March 26 through June 13, 2013 | journal=United States Reports |date=2018 |volume=569 |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes/569bv.pdf |accessdate=January 9, 2019 }}
184. ^{{cite web |title=Sliplists |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/sliplists.aspx |publisher=Supreme Court of the United States |accessdate=January 1, 2019}}
185. ^{{cite web| title=Supreme Court Research Guide| url=http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/supreme_court.cfm| work=law.georgetown.edu| publisher=Georgetown Law Library| accessdate=August 22, 2012}}
186. ^{{cite web| title=How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions| url=http://lib.guides.umd.edu/content.php?pid=128265&sid=1100770| work=lib.guides.umd.edu| publisher=University of Maryland University Libraries| accessdate=August 22, 2012}}
187. ^¹²{{cite book| title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch| year=2005| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=New York City| isbn=978-0-19-530917-1| pages=117–118| url=https://books.google.com/?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Institutions+of+American+Democracy:+The+Judicial+Branch#v=onepage&q=Institutions%20of%20American%20Democracy%3A%20The%20Judicial%20Branch&f=false| editor1-first=Kermit L.| editor1-last=Hall| editor2-first=Kevin T.| editor2-last=McGuire}}
188. ^{{cite book| last=Mendelson| first=Wallace| year=1992| contribution=Separation of Powers| editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.| editor-link=Kermit L. Hall| title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States| publisher=Oxford University Press| page=775| isbn=978-0-19-505835-2}}
189. ^The American Conflict by Horace Greeley (1873), p. 106; also in The Life of Andrew Jackson (2001) by Robert Vincent Remini
190. ^{{cite news|date=July 8, 1974|title=Supreme Court hears case of United States v. Nixon|url=http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=3733|access-date=February 20, 2019|last1=Brokaw|first1=Tom|last2=Stern|first2=Carl|publisher=NBC Universal Media LLC|quote=" But there is no guarantee that when the decision comes, it will end the matter. It may just set the stage for the next legal wrangle over compliance with the Court's decision."}}
191. ^{{cite book| last=Vile| first=John R.|year=1992|contribution=Court curbing| editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.|editor-link=Kermit L. Hall| title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States| publisher=Oxford University Press| page=202| isbn=978-0-19-505835-2}}
192. ^¹²³⁴{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/?id=NxiMWr730EcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| title=Courtiers of the Marble Palace: The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk| last=Peppers| first=Todd C.| publisher=Stanford University Press| year=2006| isbn=978-0-8047-5382-1| pages=195, 1, 20, 22, and 22–24 respectively}}
193. ^{{cite book| first1=David| last1=Weiden| first2=Artemus| last2=Ward| year=2006| title=Sorcerers' Apprentices: 100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court| publisher=NYU Press| isbn=978-0-8147-9404-3| url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780814784648?auth=0}}
194. ^{{cite book| first=James | last=Chace| title=Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World| location=New York City| publisher=Simon & Schuster| year=2007| publication-date=1998| isbn= 978-0-684-80843-7| url=https://books.google.com/?id=8Jf32GR7t3IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| page=44}}
195. ^List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
196. ^¹²³{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/07/us/politics/07clerks.html?pagewanted=1&hpw |title=Polarization of Supreme Court Is Reflected in Justices' Clerks |first=Adam |last=Liptak |work=The New York Times |date=September 7, 2010 |accessdate=September 7, 2010}}
197. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf |title=The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation? |author1=William E. Nelson |author2=Harvey Rishikof |author3=I. Scott Messinger |author4=Michael Jo |work=Vanderbilt Law Review |volume=62 |issue=6 |page=1749 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=September 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727110418/http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf |archivedate=July 27, 2010 }}
198. ^Liptak and Kopicki, The New York Times, June 7, 2012 [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/08/us/politics/44-percent-of-americans-approve-of-supreme-court-in-new-poll.html?smid=pl-share Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll]
199. ^¹²See for example "Judicial activism" in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, edited by Kermit Hall; article written by Gary McDowell
200. ^{{cite news|first=Damon W. |last=Root|title=Lochner and Liberty|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=September 21, 2009|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204488304574427193229878748|accessdate=October 23, 2009|authorlink=Damon W. Root}}
201. ^Bernstein, David. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSZnwNF7aAoC&pg=PA100 Only One Place of Redress: African Americans, Labor Regulations, and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal], p. 100 (Duke University Press, 2001): "The Court also directly overturned Lochner by adding that it is no 'longer open to question that it is within the legislative power to fix maximum hours.'"
202. ^Dorf, Michael and Morrison, Trevor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OsxMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 Constitutional Law], p. 18 (Oxford University Press, 2010).
203. ^Patrick, John. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gSniBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT362 The Supreme Court of the United States: A Student Companion], p. 362 (Oxford University Press, 2006).
204. ^{{cite news|first=Peter|last=Steinfels|title='A Church That Can and Cannot Change': Dogma|work=The New York Times: Books|date=May 22, 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/22/books/review/22STEINFE.html|accessdate=October 22, 2009}}
205. ^{{cite news |first=David G. |last=Savage |title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions? |quote=a lack of judicial authority to enter an inherently political question that had previously been left to the states |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 23, 2008 |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23 |accessdate=October 23, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story |archivedate=October 23, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=}}
206. ^{{cite news|first=Neil A. |last=Lewis|title=Judicial Nominee Says His Views Will Not Sway Him on the Bench|quote=he has written scathingly of Roe v. Wade|work=The New York Times|date=September 19, 2002|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/us/judicial-nominee-says-his-views-will-not-sway-him-on-the-bench.html|accessdate=October 22, 2009|authorlink=Neil A. Lewis}}
207. ^{{cite news|title=Election Guide 2008: The Issues: Abortion|work=The New York Times|year=2008|url=http://politics.nytimes.com/election-guide/2008/issues/abortion.html|accessdate=October 22, 2009}}
208. ^{{cite web|first=Pat|last=Buchanan|title=The judges war: an issue of power|quote=The Brown decision of 1954, desegregating the schools of 17 states and the District of Columbia, awakened the nation to the court's new claim to power.|publisher=Townhall.com|date=July 6, 2005|url= http://townhall.com/columnists/PatBuchanan/2005/07/06/the_judges_war_an_issue_of_power|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
209. ^{{cite news|first=Adam |last=Clymer|title=Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89|work=The New York Times|date=May 29, 1998|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html|accessdate=October 22, 2009|authorlink=Adam Clymer}}
210. ^{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=Geoffrey R.|date=March 26, 2012|title=Citizens United and conservative judicial activism|url=http://illinoislawreview.org/wp-content/ilr-content/articles/2012/2/Stone.pdf|journal=University of Illinois Law Review|volume=2012|issue=2|pages=485–500}}
211. ^{{cite news |first=Abraham |last=Lincoln |title=First Inaugural Address |quote=At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal. |publisher=National Center |date=March 4, 1861 |url=http://www.nationalcenter.org/LincolnFirstInaugural.html |accessdate=October 23, 2009|deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009133835/http://www.nationalcenter.org/LincolnFirstInaugural.html |archivedate=October 9, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}
212. ^{{cite news|first=George F. |last=Will|title=Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice|quote=Thurgood Marshall quote taken from the Stanford Law Review, summer 1992|work=The Washington Post|date=May 27, 2009|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html|accessdate=October 22, 2009}}
213. ^Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court. London: Penguin, 1999. {{ISBN|0-670-87006-4}}
214. ^{{cite news|first=Adam |last=Liptak|title = To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left|quote = Every judge who's been appointed to the court since Lewis Powell...in 1971...has been more conservative than his or her predecessor|work = The New York Times|date = January 31, 2009|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/01/weekinreview/01liptak.html|accessdate = October 23, 2009}}
215. ^{{cite news|first=Charles|last=Babington|title=Senator Links Violence to 'Political' Decisions|work=The Washington Post|date=April 5, 2005|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26236-2005Apr4.html|accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
216. ^{{cite news|first=Adam |last=Liptak|title=A Court Remade in the Reagan Era's Image|work=The New York Times|date=February 2, 2006|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/02/politics/politicsspecial1/02conservatives.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=October 22, 2009}}
217. ^{{cite news|first=David G.|last=Savage|title=Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions|work=Los Angeles Times|date=July 13, 2008|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13|accessdate=October 22, 2009}}
218. ^{{cite news|author=Andrew P. Napolitano|title=No Defense|work=The New York Times|date=February 17, 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/17/opinion/17napolitano.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
219. ^{{cite news|first1=Thomas B. |last1=Edsall|first2=Michael A.|last2=Fletcher|title=Again, Right Voices Concern About Gonzales|work=The Washington Post|date=September 5, 2005|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/04/AR2005090401338.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
220. ^{{cite news|first=Charles |last=Lane|title= Conservative's Book on Supreme Court Is a Bestseller|work=The Washington Post|date=March 20, 2005|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50246-2005Mar19.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
221. ^{{cite book|author1=Mark I. Sutherland|author2=Dave Meyer|author3=William J. Federer|author4=Alan Keyes|author5=Ed Meese|author6=Phyllis Schlafly|author7=Howard Phillips|author8= Alan E. Sears|author9=Ben DuPre |author10=Rev. Rick Scarborough|author11=David C. Gibbs III|author12=Mathew D. Staver|author13=Don Feder|author14= Herbert W. Titus|title=Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America|publisher=Amerisearch Inc.|year=2005|location=St. Louis, Missouri|page=242|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VBrjcQkzV94C&pg=PA96|isbn=978-0-9753455-6-6}}
222. ^¹{{cite news|first=Michiko |last=Kakutani|title=Appointees Who Really Govern America|work=The New York Times|date=July 6, 2009|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/books/07kaku.html|accessdate=October 27, 2009|authorlink=Michiko Kakutani}}
223. ^{{cite news|author=Emily Bazelon|title=The Supreme Court on Trial: James MacGregor Burns takes aim at the bench.|work=Slate|date=July 6, 2009|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2222028/|accessdate=October 27, 2009}}
224. ^Special keynote address by President Ronald Reagan, November 1988, at the second annual lawyers convention of the Federalist Society, Washington, D.C.
225. ^{{cite news|author=Stuart Taylor Jr.|title=Reagan Points to a Critic, Who Points Out It Isn't So|work=The New York Times|date=October 15, 1987|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/15/us/reagan-points-to-a-critic-who-points-out-it-isn-t-so.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009|authorlink=Stuart Taylor Jr.}}
226. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,97117,00.html|title=Judge Bork: Judicial Activism Is Going Global|date=September 11, 2003|publisher=Fox News|quote=What judges have wrought is a coup d'état – slow moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless.|author=Kelley Beaucar Vlahos|accessdate=October 23, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523104338/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,97117,00.html|archive-date=May 23, 2010|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}
227. ^¹²{{cite news|author=Naftali Bendavid|title=Franken: 'An Incredible Honor to Be Here'| work = The Wall Street Journal| date = July 13, 2009| url = https://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2009/07/13/franken-an-incredible-honor-to-be-here/| accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
228. ^{{cite web | url =https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/lets-start-telling-the-truth-about-what-the-supreme-court-does/2017/03/17/c80bb162-0b2e-11e7-b77c-0047d15a24e0_story.html | title =Let's start telling the truth about what the Supreme Court does | last =Leiter | first =Brian | date =19 March 2017 | website =Washington Post | access-date =13 June 2018 | quote = }}
229. ^{{cite news| author = William Safire| title = Dog Whistle| work = New York Times Magazine| date = April 24, 2005| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/24/magazine/24ONLANGUAGE.html| accessdate = October 22, 2009| authorlink = William Safire}}
230. ^{{cite news |author=David G. Savage |title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions? |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 23, 2008 |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23 |accessdate=October 23, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story |archivedate=October 23, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=}}
231. ^{{cite news| author = Laura Mansnerus| title = Diminished Eminence in a Changed Domain| work = The New York Times| date = October 16, 2005| url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all| accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
232. ^{{cite news| author = Ronald Smothers| title = In Long Branch, No Olive Branches| work = The New York Times| date = October 16, 2005| url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A03EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63| accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
233. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/opinion/15tue4.html|title=Editorial Observer – A Supreme Court Reversal: Abandoning the Rights of Voters|date=January 15, 2008|work=New York Times|author=Adam Cohen|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
234. ^{{cite news| url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13|title=Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions| date=July 13, 2008| work=Los Angeles Times| quote=This suggests that the right of habeas corpus was not limited to English subjects … protects people who are captured … at Guantanamo … Wrong, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in dissent. He said English history showed that the writ of habeas corpus was limited to sovereign English territory|author=David G. Savage|accessdate=October 30, 2009}}
235. ^{{cite news|author = George F. Will|title=Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice|work=The Washington Post|date=May 27, 2009|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html|accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
236. ^¹{{cite news|author = James Taranto|title = Speaking Ruth to Power|work = The Wall Street Journal|date = June 9, 2009|url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124456827959598503|accessdate = October 22, 2009}}
237. ^{{cite book|last=Woodward|first=Bob|author2=Scott Armstrong |title=The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court|quote=A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1979|location=United States of America|page=541|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6JtJ23GmD3AC| isbn = 978-0-7432-7402-9}}
238. ^¹²³{{cite news|author=Larry Sabato|title=It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country|work=The Huffington Post|date=September 26, 2007|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/larry-sabato/its-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
239. ^{{cite journal|url=http://reviewcanada.ca/essays/2008/11/01/our-canadian-republic/|title=Our Canadian Republic – Do we display too much deference to authority … or not enough?|date=November 1, 2008|journal=Literary Review of Canada|author=Christopher Moore| accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
240. ^{{cite news |title=In Defence of the Political Constitution |first=Adam |last=Tomkins |publisher=22 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 157 |location=United Kingdom |year=2002 |quote= Bush v. Gore }}
241. ^{{cite news|first=James |last=Madison|title=The Federalist Papers/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered|quote = the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty|publisher = Wikisource|year = 1789|url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers/No._45|accessdate = October 24, 2009}}
242. ^{{cite news|author = Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius)|title = Federalist No. 28|quote = Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government.|publisher = Independent Journal|year = 1789|url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed28.asp|accessdate = October 24, 2009}}
243. ^{{cite news|first= James |last= Madison|title = The Federalist|issue = 44 (quote: 8th para)|quote = seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.|work = Independent Journal|date = January 25, 1788|url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa44.htm|accessdate = October 27, 2009}}
244. ^{{cite news|first=James |last=Madison|title=The Federalist No. 56 (quote: 6th para)|quote=In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act.|publisher=Independent Journal|date=February 16, 1788|url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa56.htm|accessdate = October 27, 2009}}
245. ^{{cite news|author = Alexander Hamilton|title = The Federalist No. 22 (quote: 4th para)|quote = The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy.|publisher = New York Packet|date = December 14, 1787|url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa22.htm|accessdate = October 27, 2009}}
246. ^{{cite news|first= James |last= Madison|title = The Federalist Papers|quote = The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits.|publisher = New York Packet|date = January 22, 1788|url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed42.asp|accessdate = October 27, 2009}}
247. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/amar-rights.html|title=The Bill of Rights – Creation and Reconstruction| work=The New York Times: Books| year=1998| quote=many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials—especially federal courts—as the special guardians of those rights.| author=Akhil Reed Amar| accessdate=October 24, 2009|authorlink=Akhil Reed Amar}}
248. ^{{cite news|author = Scott Gold|title = Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law|quote = Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said.|work=Los Angeles Times|date = June 14, 2005|url = http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/14/nation/na-cavebugs14|accessdate = March 24, 2012}}
249. ^¹{{cite news |author=Robert B. Reich| title=The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista|work=New York Times Magazine|date=September 13, 1987|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/magazine/the-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html| accessdate = October 27, 2009}}
250. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001087.html| title=U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court| date=January 10, 2006| work=The Washington Post| quote=I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place – Samuel Alito| author=FDCH e-Media| accessdate=October 30, 2009}}
251. ^{{cite news |first=Adam |last=Cohen |title= Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance |quote=But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as laboratories of democracy |work=The New York Times |date=December 7, 2003 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/07/opinion/editorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html |accessdate= October 30, 2009}}
252. ^{{cite news |first=Lino |last=Graglia |title=Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies |publisher=University of Texas School of Law |date=July 19, 2005 |url=http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html |accessdate=October 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204214859/http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html |archivedate=December 4, 2010 }}
253. ^{{cite news|first=Jacob C.|last=Hornberger|title = Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment|quote=Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom.|publisher=The Future of Freedom Foundation|date=October 30, 2009|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22misused+the+fourteenth+amendment%22&aq=f&oq=&aqi=|accessdate=October 30, 2009}}
254. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/gamble-v-united-states/|title=Gamble v. United States|last=|first=|date=|website=ScotusBlog|access-date=September 28, 2018}}
255. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/28/politics/supreme-court-double-jeopardy-clause/index.html|title=Supreme Court agrees to hear 'double jeopardy' case in the fall|last=Vazquez|first=Maegan|date=June 28, 2018|website=CNN|access-date=September 28, 2018}}
256. ^{{cite news|author=James Vicini|title=Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling|quote=The nine-member Supreme Court conducts its deliberations in secret and the justices traditionally won't discuss pending cases in public|agency=Reuters|date=April 24, 2008|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
257. ^{{cite web |url=http://publicmind.fdu.edu/courttv/|title=Public Says Televising Court Is Good for Democracy|work=PublicMind.fdu.edu|date=March 9, 2010|accessdate=December 14, 2010}}
258. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1202445941834|title = Poll Shows Public Support for Cameras at the High Court|author=Mauro, Tony|work=The National Law Journal|date=March 9, 2010|accessdate=December 18, 2010}}
259. ^¹²{{cite web|publisher = CSPAN|title = C-SPAN Supreme Court Week|date = October 4, 2009|accessdate = October 25, 2009|url = http://supremecourt.c-span.org}}
260. ^{{cite news|author = James Vicini|title = Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling|quote = Scalia was interviewed for the CBS News show "60 Minutes|agency = Reuters|date = April 24, 2008|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424|accessdate = October 23, 2009}}
261. ^¹²{{cite news|first=David|last=Margolick|title=Meet the Supremes|quote=Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted.|work=The New York Times|date=September 23, 2007|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/review/Margolick-t.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
262. ^{{cite news |author=David G. Savage |title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions? |quote=UC Berkeley law professor Goodwin Liu described the decision as 'utterly lacking in any legal principle" and added that the court was "remarkably unashamed to say so explicitly.' |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 23, 2008 |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23 |accessdate=October 23, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story |archivedate=October 23, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=}}
263. ^{{cite web |url=http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5105&context=uclrev |title=Two-and-a-Half Cheers for Bush v Gore |date=June 1, 2001 |author=McConnell, Michael W. |work=University of Chicago Law Review |accessdate=February 16, 2016}}
264. ^{{cite news|author=CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl)|title=Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore|quote=Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute"|work=The Washington Post|date=July 14, 2009|url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/supreme-court/2009/07/key_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
265. ^{{cite news |author=Adam Cohen (Opinion section) |title=Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. Gore |quote=The Bush v. Gore majority, made up of Mr. Rehnquist and his fellow conservatives, interpreted the equal protection clause in a sweeping way they had not before, and have not since. And they stated that the interpretation was 'limited to the present circumstances,' words that suggest a raw exercise of power, not legal analysis. |work=The New York Times |date=March 21, 2004 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html |accessdate=October 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111524/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html |archivedate=May 11, 2011 }}
266. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/04/opinion/lweb04douthat.html| title=Letters – Supreme Court Activism?| date=June 3, 2009| work=The New York Times| author=Kevin McNamara (letter to the editor)|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}
267. ^{{cite news|author=CQ Transcriptions|title=U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court|quote=...Baker v. Carr, the reapportionment case. We heard Justice Frankfurter who delivered a scathing dissent in that...|work=The Washington Post|date=January 13, 2006|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/13/AR2006011300802.html|accessdate=October 28, 2009}}
268. ^{{cite news|author=Linda Greenhouse|title = New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure|work=The New York Times|date=September 10, 2007|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/washington/10scotus.html|accessdate=October 10, 2009}}
269. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/feb/09/supreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg|title=Supreme court prognosis – Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms|date=February 9, 2009| work=The Guardian| location=Manchester| first=Sanford| last=Levinson| accessdate=October 10, 2009}}
270. ^See also Arthur D. Hellman, "Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?," in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices (Carolina Academic Press, 2006), p. 291.
271. ^Richard Epstein, "Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices," in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices (Carolina Academic Press, 2006), p. 415.
272. ^Brian Opeskin, "Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges", Oxford J Legal Studies 2015 35: 627–663.
273. ^{{cite news|author=Alexander Hamilton|title=The Federalist No. 78|quote=and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security.|publisher=Independent Journal|date=June 14, 1788|url= http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa78.htm|accessdate = October 28, 2009}}
274. ^{{cite news|title=Justice Obscured: Supreme court justices earn quarter-million in cash on the side|url=https://www.publicintegrity.org/2014/06/20/14981/supreme-court-justices-earn-quarter-million-cash-side|first=Reity|last=O'Brien|publisher=Center for Public Integrity|date=June 20, 2014}}
275. ^¹{{cite news|title=Scalia Took Dozens of Trips Funded by Private Sponsors|first=Eric|last=Lipton|work=The New York Times|date=February 26, 2016|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/27/us/politics/scalia-led-court-in-taking-trips-funded-by-private-sponsors.html?_r=0}}
276. ^{{cite news|title=Why Justice Scalia was staying for free at a Texas resort|first1=Mark|last1=Berman|first2=Jerry|last2=Markon|work=The Washington Post|date=February 17, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/02/17/justice-scalias-death-and-questions-about-who-pays-for-supreme-court-justices-to-visit-remote-resorts/}}