“Svante Arrhenius”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase the Earth's surface temperature, leading David Keeling to conclude, and demonstrate in the 1960s, that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming.^[3]

His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation, Arrhenius acid, lunar crater Arrhenius, Martian crater Arrhenius,^[4] the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet, and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University.

Biography

Early years

Arrhenius was born on 19 February 1859 at Vik (also spelled Wik or Wijk), near Uppsala, Sweden, the son of Svante Gustav and Carolina Thunberg Arrhenius. His father had been a land surveyor for Uppsala University, moving up to a supervisory position. At the age of three, Arrhenius taught himself to read without the encouragement of his parents, and by watching his father's addition of numbers in his account books, became an arithmetical prodigy. In later life, Arrhenius enjoyed using masses of data to discover mathematical relationships and laws.

At age eight, he entered the local cathedral school, starting in the fifth grade, distinguishing himself in physics and mathematics, and graduating as the youngest and most able student in 1876.

Ionic disassociation

At the University of Uppsala, he was dissatisfied with the chief instructor of physics and the only faculty member who could have supervised him in chemistry, Per Teodor Cleve, so he left to study at the Physical Institute of the Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the physicist Erik Edlund in 1881.{{cn|date=August 2017}}

His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for the doctorate. It did not impress the professors, among whom was Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, but upon his defense it was reclassified as third-class. Later, extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.^[5]

Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most of which would still be accepted today unchanged or with minor modifications. The most important idea in the dissertation was his explanation of the fact that solid crystalline salts disassociate into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius's explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt disassociates into charged particles, to which Michael Faraday had given the name ions many years earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis, that is, an external direct current source of electricity was necessary to form ions. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current, aqueous solutions of salts contained ions.

He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.^[6]^[7]^[8]

The dissertation did not impress the professors at Uppsala, but Arrhenius sent it to a number of scientists in Europe who were developing the new science of physical chemistry, such as Rudolf Clausius, Wilhelm Ostwald, and J. H. van 't Hoff.

They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team. Arrhenius declined, however, as he preferred to stay in Sweden for a while (his father was very ill and would die in 1885) and had received an appointment at Uppsala.^[6]^[7]^[8]

In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution.

Middle period

In 1885 Arrhenius next received a travel grant from the Swedish Academy of Sciences, which enabled him to study with Ostwald in Riga (now in Latvia), with Friedrich Kohlrausch in Würzburg, Germany, with Ludwig Boltzmann in Graz, Austria, and with van 't Hoff in Amsterdam.

In 1889 Arrhenius explained the fact that most reactions require added heat energy to proceed by formulating the concept of activation energy, an energy barrier that must be overcome before two molecules will react. The Arrhenius equation gives the quantitative basis of the relationship between the activation energy and the rate at which a reaction proceeds.

In 1891 he became a lecturer at the Stockholm University College (Stockholms Högskola, now Stockholm University), being promoted to professor of physics (with much opposition) in 1895, and rector in 1896.

He was married twice, first to his former pupil Sofia Rudbeck (1894 to 1896), with whom he had one son Olof Arrhenius, and then to Maria Johansson (1905 to 1927), with whom he had two daughters and a son.

About 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1901. For the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a de facto member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry. He used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends (Jacobus van't Hoff, Wilhelm Ostwald, Theodore Richards) and to attempt to deny them to his enemies (Paul Ehrlich, Walther Nernst, Dmitri Mendeleev).^[9] In 1901 Arrhenius was elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, against strong opposition. In 1903 he became the first Swede to be awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry.

In 1905, upon the founding of the Nobel Institute for Physical Research at Stockholm, he was appointed rector of the institute, the position where he remained until retirement in 1927. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1910.^[10] In 1911 he won the first Willard Gibbs Award.^[11]

" In 1912, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences^[12] In 1919 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.^[13]

Later years

Eventually, Arrhenius's theories became generally accepted and he turned to other scientific topics. In 1902 he began to investigate physiological problems in terms of chemical theory. He determined that reactions in living organisms and in the test tube followed the same laws.

In 1904 he delivered at the University of California a course of lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry.^[14]

He also turned his attention to geology (the origin of ice ages), astronomy, physical cosmology, and astrophysics, accounting for the birth of the solar system by interstellar collision.

He considered radiation pressure as accounting for comets, the solar corona, the aurora borealis, and zodiacal light.

He thought life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores, the theory now known as panspermia.^[15] He thought of the idea of a universal language, proposing a modification of the English language.

He was a board member for the Swedish Society for Racial Hygiene (founded 1909), which endorsed mendelism at the time, and contributed to the topic of contraceptives around 1910. However, until 1938 information and sale of contraceptives was prohibited in Sweden. Around 1930, conservative members of the society helped to establish eugenic policies in Sweden.^[16]^[17] Gordon Stein wrote that Svante Arrhenius was an atheist.^[18]^[19] In his last years he wrote both textbooks and popular books, trying to emphasize the need for further work on the topics he discussed. In September 1927 he came down with an attack of acute intestinal catarrh and died on 2 October. He was buried in Uppsala.

Greenhouse effect

In developing a theory to explain the ice ages, Arrhenius, in 1896, was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) will increase Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.^[3]^[21]^[22] These calculations led him to conclude that human-caused CO₂ emissions, from fossil-fuel burning and other combustion processes, are large enough to cause global warming. This conclusion has been extensively tested, winning a place at the core of modern climate science.^[23]^[24] Arrhenius, in this work, built upon the prior work of other famous scientists, including Joseph Fourier, John Tyndall and Claude Pouillet. Arrhenius wanted to determine whether greenhouse gases could contribute to the explanation of the temperature variation between glacial and inter-glacial periods.^[25] Arrhenius used infrared observations of the moon — by Frank Washington Very and Samuel Pierpont Langley at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh — to calculate how much of infrared (heat) radiation is captured by CO₂ and water (H₂O) vapour in Earth's atmosphere. Using 'Stefan's law' (better known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law), he formulated what he referred to as a 'rule'.

Here, Arrhenius refers to CO₂ as carbonic acid (which refers only to the aqueous form H₂CO₃ in modern usage). The following formulation of Arrhenius's rule is still in use today:^[26]

where

is the concentration of CO₂ at the beginning (time-zero) of the period being studied (if the same concentration unit is used for both

and

, then it doesn't matter which concentration unit is used);

is the CO₂ concentration at end of the period being studied; ln is the natural logarithm (= log base e ({{nowrap|log_e}})); and

is the augmentation of the temperature, in other words the change in the rate of heating Earth's surface (radiative forcing), which is measured in joules of heat energy per second, per square meter — a joule per second is one watt.^[26] Derivations from atmospheric radiative transfer models have found that

(alpha) for CO₂ is 5.35 (+/- 10%) for Earth's atmosphere.^[27]

Based on information from his colleague Arvid Högbom, Arrhenius was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other combustion processes were large enough to cause global warming. In his calculation Arrhenius included the feedback from changes in water vapor as well as latitudinal effects, but he omitted clouds, convection of heat upward in the atmosphere, and other essential factors. His work is currently seen less as an accurate quantification of global warming than as the first demonstration that increases in atmospheric CO₂ will cause global warming, everything else being equal.

Arrhenius's absorption values for CO₂ and his conclusions met criticism by Knut Ångström in 1900, who published the first modern infrared absorption spectrum of CO₂ with two absorption bands, and published experimental results that seemed to show that absorption of infrared radiation by the gas in the atmosphere was already "saturated" so that adding more could make no difference. Arrhenius replied strongly in 1901 (Annalen der Physik), dismissing the critique altogether. He touched on the subject briefly in a technical book titled Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik (1903). He later wrote Världarnas utveckling (1906) (German: Das Werden der Welten [1907], English: [https://books.google.com/books?id=1t45AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover Worlds in the Making] [1908]) directed at a general audience, where he suggested that the human emission of CO₂ would be strong enough to prevent the world from entering a new ice age, and that a warmer earth would be needed to feed the rapidly increasing population:

At this time, the accepted consensus explanation is that, historically, orbital forcing has set the timing for ice ages, with CO₂ acting as an essential amplifying feedback.^[28]^[29] However, CO₂ releases since the industrial revolution have increased CO₂ to a level not found since 10 to 15 million years ago, when the global average surface temperature was up to {{convert|11|F-change|0}} warmer than now and almost all ice had melted, raising world sea-levels to about 100 feet higher than today's.^[30]

Arrhenius estimated based on the CO₂ levels at his time, that reducing levels by 0.62 – 0.55 would decrease temperatures by 4–5 °C (Celsius) and an increase of 2.5 to 3 times of CO₂ would cause a temperature rise of 8–9 °C in the Arctic.^[21]^[31] In his book Worlds in the Making he described the "hot-house" theory of the atmosphere.^[32]

See also

Bibliography

References

1. ^[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/arrhenius "Arrhenius"]. Webster’s New World College Dictionary.
2. ^"Arrhenius, Svante August" in Chambers's Encyclopædia. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol. 1, p. 635.
3. ^¹{{cite journal|last1=Baum, Sr.|first1=Rudy M.|title=Future Calculations: The first climate change believer|journal=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2 |pages=38–39 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/future-calculations|accessdate=22 March 2018}}
4. ^{{cite journal | title=The new Martian nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union | display-authors=1 | last1=de Vaucouleurs | first1=G. | last2=Blunck | first2=J. | last3=Davies | first3=M. | last4=Dollfus | first4=A. | last5=Koval | first5=I. K. | last6=Kuiper | first6=G. P. | last7=Masursky | first7=H. | last8=Miyamoto | first8=S. | last9=Moroz | first9=V. I. | last10=Sagan | first10=Carl | last11=Smith | first11=Bradford | journal=Icarus | volume=26 | issue=1 | date=September 1975 | pages=85−98 | doi=10.1016/0019-1035(75)90146-3 | bibcode=1975Icar...26...85D }}
5. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1903/index.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903|author=|date=|website=www.nobelprize.org|accessdate=18 March 2018}}
6. ^¹{{cite book|editor1-last=Harris|editor1-first=William|editor2-last=Levey|editor2-first=Judith|title=The New Columbia Encyclopedia|date=1975|publisher=Columbia University|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-231035-729|page=155|edition=4th}}
7. ^¹{{cite book|editor1-last=McHenry|editor1-first=Charles|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica|date=1992|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|location=Chicago|isbn=978-085-229553-3|page=587|volume=1|edition=15}}
8. ^¹{{cite book|editor1-last=Cillispie|editor1-first=Charles|title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography|date=1970|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-684101-125|pages=296–302|edition=1}}
9. ^Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008,
10. ^{{cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|title=Fellows of the Royal Society|author=Royal Society}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://chicagoacs.org/content.php?page=Willard_Gibbs_Award|title=Willard Gibbs Award|author=|date=|website=chicagoacs.org|accessdate=18 March 2018}}
12. ^{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=25 April 2011}}
13. ^{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004828 |title=Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |date= |accessdate=19 July 2015}}
14. ^{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924000273718|title=Immunochemistry; the application of the principles of physical chemistry to the study of the biological antibodies|date=1907|author=Svante Arrhenius|publisher=The Macmillan Company}}
15. ^Arrhenius, S., Worlds in the Making: The Evolution of the Universe. New York, Harper & Row, 1908,
16. ^{{cite journal|url=http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/08/12/rsnr.2010.0009|title=Selling eugenics: the case of Sweden|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society|authors=Maria Björkman, Sven Widmalm|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2010.0009|year=2010|volume=64|issue=4|pages=379–400|pmid=21553636}}
17. ^{{cite book|publisher=Michigan State University Press|authors=Gunnar Broberg, Nils Roll-Hansen|title=Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/?id=X7iMAAAAIAAJ&q=Arrhenius|isbn=9780870134135}}
18. ^{{cite book|title=The encyclopedia of unbelief|volume=1|date=1988|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=9780879753078|author=Gordon Stein|page=594|quote=Svante Arrhenius (I859-I927), recipient of the Nobel Prize in chemistry (I903), was a declared atheist and the author of The Evolution of the Worlds and other works on cosmic physics.}}
19. ^{{cite web|title=Svante Arrhenius|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/875/000092599/|publisher=Soylent Communications|accessdate=11 September 2012|author=NNDB.com}}
20. ^Mot bacillskräck och gubbvälde, 2011-02-01
21. ^¹{{cite journal |last1=Arrhenius |first1=Svante |title=On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=1896 |volume=41 |issue=251 |pages=237–276 |doi=10.1080/14786449608620846|url=http://www.rsc.org/images/Arrhenius1896_tcm18-173546.pdf}}
22. ^{{cite journal|last1=Arrhenius |first1=Svante|title=On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air Upon the Temperature of the Ground|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|year=1897|pages=14|volume=9|issue=54|bibcode = 1897PASP....9...14A |doi = 10.1086/121158 }}
23. ^[https://www.skepticalscience.com/empirical-evidence-for-co2-enhanced-greenhouse-effect.htm "How do we know more CO2 is causing global warming?"], Skeptical Science, founded by John Cook, the Climate Communication Fellow for the Global Change Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
24. ^[https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf "Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)"], IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
25. ^Rodhe, Henning, et al. “Svante Arrhenius and the Greenhouse Effect.” Ambio, vol. 26, no. 1, 1997, pp. 2–5. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4314542.
26. ^¹Martin E. Walter, "Earthquakes and Weatherquakes: Mathematics and Climate Change", Notices of the American Mathematical Society, Volume 57, Number 10, page 1278 (November 2010).
27. ^"NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index, Spring 2016", NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index, updated Spring 2016, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO 80305, James H Butler and Stephen A Montzka
28. ^https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/2014/06/20/how-do-co2-levels-relate-to-ice-ages-and-sea-level/ Retrieved 2017-01-04.
29. ^{{cite journal |last1=Ganopolski |first1=A. |last2=Calov |first2=R. |title=The role of orbital forcing, carbon dioxide and regolith in 100 kyr glacial cycles |journal=Climate of the Past |date=2011 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1415–1425 |doi=10.5194/cp-7-1415-2011|url=http://www.clim-past.net/7/1415/2011/cp-7-1415-2011.pdf}}
30. ^http://www.climatecentral.org/news/the-last-time-co2-was-this-high-humans-didnt-exist-15938 Retrieved 2017-01-04.
31. ^{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Arrhenius/arrhenius_2.php|title=Svante Arrhenius|author=NASA}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Arrhenius/arrhenius_3.php|title=Svante Arrhenius|author=NASA}}