| 词条 | Tawaif |
| 释义 |
A tawaif was a highly sophisticated courtesan who catered to the nobility of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Mughal era. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradition,[1] and were considered an authority on etiquette. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards[2] and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century.[3] They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms [4] and then emergence of modern Indian cinema. HistoryThe patronage of the Mughal court before and after the Mughal Dynasty in the Doab region and the artistic atmosphere of 16th century Lucknow made arts-related careers a viable prospect. Many girls were taken at a young age and trained in both performing arts (such as Kathak and Hindustani classical music) as well as literature (ghazal, thumri) to high standards.[5] Once they had matured and possessed a sufficient command over dancing and singing, they became a tawaif, high-class courtesans who served the rich and noble.[6] The tawaif's introduction into her profession was marked by a celebration, the so-called missī ceremony, that customarily included the inaugural blackening of her teeth.[7] It is also believed that young nawabs-to-be were sent to these "tawaifs" to learn "tameez" and "tehzeeb" which included the ability to differentiate and appreciate good music and literature, perhaps even practice it, especially the art of ghazal writing. By the 18th century, they had become the central element of polite, refined culture in North India. These courtesans would dance, sing (especially ghazals), recite poetry (shairi) and entertain their suitors at mehfils. Like the geisha tradition in Japan,[8] their main purpose was to professionally entertain their guests, and while sex was often incidental, it was not assured contractually. High-class or the most popular tawaifs could often pick and choose among the best of their suitors. Some of the popular tawaifs were Begum Samru (who rose to rule the principality of Sardhana in western UP), Moran Sarkar (who became the wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh), Wazeeran (patronised by Lucknow’s last nawab Wajid Ali Shah), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Wajid Ali's first wife who played an important role in the First War of Independence), Umrao Jaan (1981), Gauhar Jaan (a notable classical singer who sang for India's first-ever record), and Zohrabai Agrewali. DeclineThe annexation of Oudh by the British in 1856 sounded the first death-knell for this medieval institution. It soon was not favoured by the British, and the women were branded as prostitutes to defame them. Social reformers opposed them as social decadence.[9] The institutions survived until India's Independence. Some of the famous Tawaifs include :[10]
They used to be the only source of popular music and dance and were often invited to perform on weddings and other occasions. Some of them became concubines of maharajas and wealthy individuals. With the emergence of movies and record industry, however, they lost popularity. Popular cultureThe image of the tawaif has had an enduring appeal, immortalized in Bollywood movies. Films with a tawaif as a central character include Devdas (1955), Sadhna (1958), Pakeezah (1972), Amar Prem (1972), Umrao Jaan (1981), Tawaif (1985), Pati Patni Aur Tawaif (1990), Devdas (2002),[13] and Umrao Jaan (2006)[14] and documentary film, The Other Song (2009). Other films depict a tawaif in a supporting role, often in situations where a man in a loveless marriage goes to her.[15] See also{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
References1. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/08/11/stories/2004081101090100.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Mapping cultures | date=2004-08-11}} {{refbegin}}2. ^{{cite journal|last1=Schoffield|first1=Katherine Butler|title=The Courtesan Tale: Female Musicians and Dancers in Mughal Historical Chronicles, c.1556–1748|journal=Gender & History|date=April 2012|volume=24|issue=1|pages=150–171}} 3. ^{{cite news |title= Fall of a culture|author= |url= http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090920/spectrum/main2.htm|newspaper= Tribune India|date= |accessdate=22 January 2012}} 4. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=lsuhSiITjU8C&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31&dq=faiza+bai+singer&source=bl&ots=U5PzzdU51U&sig=O10HHPFuDSWzBQinyRYGl8Mdilk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijpYX-2onUAhUowFQKHW6zBKoQ6AEINzAD#v=onepage&q=faiza%20bai%20singer&f=false Dance in Thumri, Projesh Banerji, Abhinav Publications, 1986, p. 31] 5. ^{{cite news |title= A hundred years of unsung love|author= |url= http://www.mid-day.com/articles/a-hundred-years-of-unsung-love/85029|newspaper= Mid Day|date= |accessdate=22 January 2012}} 6. ^{{cite news |title= The Last Song of Awadh|author= |url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-last-song-of-awadh/502153/0|newspaper=Indian Express |date= |accessdate=22 January 2012}} 7. ^{{cite web|url=https://oxford.academia.edu/ThomasZumbroich |title=Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2015) 'The missī-stained finger-tip of the fair': A cultural history of teeth and gum blackening in South Asia. eJournal of Indian Medicine 8(1): 1-32|accessdate=2015-03-31}} 8. ^{{cite news |title= Courtesans resisted male dominance|author= |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-12-29/lucknow/27292450_1_male-dominance-oldenburg-lucknow|newspaper= Times of India|date= 29 December 2002|accessdate=22 January 2012}} 9. ^Indian Classical Dance and the Making of Postcolonial National Identities: Dancing on Empire's Stage,Sitara Thobani, Routledge, 27 March 2017 10. ^A Few Famous Tawaifs of the Time, THE TAWAIF, THE ANTI - NAUTCH MOVEMENT, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC: Part 6 - The Passing of the Torch, David Courtney, 23 February 2016 11. ^[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pQF3KazeZc GAUHER JAN FIRST INDIAN RECORD IN KOLKATTA, Oct 31, 2009] 12. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/zareena-begum-awadh-s-last-royal-singer-dies-at-88/story-7D9j517oIinlqRuTUlh34H.html|title=Zareena Begum, Awadh’s last royal singer, dies at 88|date=2018-05-12|work=www.hindustantimes.com|access-date=2018-08-04|language=en}} 13. ^{{cite news |title= Umrao Jaan|author= |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-04/hindi/27807887_1_umrao-jaan-dream-lover-urdu|newspaper= Times of India|date= 4 November 2006|accessdate=22 January 2012}} 14. ^{{cite news |title=Ash glows at the mahurat of Umrao Jaan |author= |url= http://inhome.rediff.com/movies/2005/oct/10ash.htm|newspaper= Rediff|date= |accessdate=22 January 2012}} 15. ^{{cite news|title= The Black Woman|author= |url= http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/42323411-black-woman|newspaper= Washington Bangla Radio|date= |accessdate= 22 January 2012|deadurl= yes|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110427040728/http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/42323411-black-woman|archivedate= 27 April 2011|df= dmy-all}}
Further reading
External links
5 : Obsolete occupations|Sex industry in India|Courtesans by type|Culture of Lucknow|Culture of Uttar Pradesh |
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