“Ten-pin bowling”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Ten-pin bowling is a type of bowling in which a bowler rolls a bowling ball down a wood or synthetic lane toward ten pins positioned in a tetractys (equilateral triangle-based pattern) at the far end of the lane. The objective is to knock down all ten pins (a strike) on the first roll of the ball.

Behind a foul line is an approach approximately {{convert|15|ft|m|0}} long used to impart speed and apply rotation to the ball. A {{convert|41.5|in|cm|adj=mid|-wide}}, {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}}^[1] lane is bordered along its length by gutters (semicylindrical channels) that collect errant balls. The lane's narrow shape prevents straight-line ball paths from achieving an angle optimally desired to achieve strikes; accordingly, more advanced bowlers impart sideways rotation to hook (curve) the ball into the target. Oil applied in different patterns to the first two-thirds (approximate) of the lane's length adds complexity and challenge to the sport.

Commonly, two finger holes and a thumb hole are drilled into the ball. Ball weights vary considerably to make the sport playable for all ages, and young children may use ramps. While ten-pin bowling leagues and tournaments are common, the sport is also played recreationally by millions of people.

In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and most of the United States, the game is commonly referred to as just "bowling" while in Canada it is referred to as "ten-pin bowling" to distinguish it from five-pin bowling. In the New England area of the United States, the game is specifically called "ten-pin bowling" or "big-ball bowling" to distinguish it from smaller balls used in candlepin bowling, duckpin bowling, and five-pin bowling.

Facilities and equipment

Lanes

Ten-pin bowling lanes are {{convert|60|ft|m|2}} from the foul line to the center of the head pin (1-pin). About {{convert|15|ft|m|2}} from the foul line are a set of guide arrows. The lane is {{convert|41.5|in|m|2}} wide and normally consists of 39 wooden boards (commonly rock maple in the "heads", which is the first 15 feet of lane, and in the pin deck, which begins about 2 feet in front of the head pin; the middle of lane is a softer wood) or a synthetic material. The bowling lane has two sets of approach dots; from the foul line back to the first set of approach dots is about {{convert|12|ft|m|2}} and to the second set of approach dots is about {{convert|15|ft|m|2}} back.^[1]

Modern bowling lanes have oil patterns designed not only to shield the lanes from damage from bowling ball impacts, but to provide bowlers with different levels of challenge in achieving strikes. As illustrated, a typical house pattern (or THS, typical house shot) has drier outside portions that give bowling balls more friction to hook (curve) into the pocket, but heavier oil concentrations surrounding the centerline so that balls slide directly toward the pocket with less hooking.{{sfn |Freeman |Hatfield |2018 |loc=Chapter 15 ("Lane play") }} In the more challenging sport patterns used in tournaments and professional-level matches, a "flat" oil pattern—one with oil distributed more evenly from side to side—provides little assistance in guiding the ball toward the pocket.{{sfn |Freeman |Hatfield |2018 |loc=Chapter 15 ("Lane play") }} The ratio of centerline oil concentration to side oil concentration (the oil ratio) can exceed 10-to-1 for THSs but are restricted to 3-to-1 or less for sport shots.{{sfn |Freeman |Hatfield |2018 |loc=Chapter 15 ("Lane play") }}

Commonly, lanes are protected by about {{convert|18|ml|floz|2}} of oil. PBA events use about {{convert|30|ml|floz|2}} of oil, and PWBA events use {{convert|25|ml|floz|2}}. The oil starts about 4 inches past the foul line and is applied on about the first two-thirds of the lane.

Balls

Rubber balls (introduced in 1905) were eventually supplanted by polyester ("plastic") balls (1959) and polyurethane ("urethane") balls (1980s).^[1] Coverstocks (surfaces) of bowling balls then evolved to increase the hook-enhancing friction between ball and lane: reactive resin balls arrived in the early 1990s, and particle-enhanced resin balls in the late 1990s.^[1] Meanwhile, the increasingly sophisticated technology of internal cores (also called weight blocks) has increased balls' dynamic imbalance, which, in conjunction with the coverstocks' increased friction, enhances hook (curving) potential to achieve the higher entry angles that have enabled a dramatic increases in strike percentage and game scores.{{sfn |Stremmel |Ridenour |Stervenz |2008 }}

Hook potential has increased so much that dry lane conditions or spare shooting scenarios sometimes compel use of plastic or urethane balls, to purposely avoid the larger hook provided by reactive technology.^[1]^[2]

The USBC regulates ball parameters including maximum diameter ({{convert|8.595|in|cm|2}}), maximum circumference ({{convert|27|in|m|2}}), and maximum weight (16 pounds (7.26 kg)).^[1]

Ball motion

Because pin spacing is much larger than ball size, it is impossible for the ball to contact all pins. Therefore, a tactical shot is required, which would result in a chain reaction of pins hitting other pins in a process called "pin scatter". In what is considered an ideal shot, the ball contacts only the 1, 3, 5 and 9 pins (right-handers).{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}}

Most new players roll the ball straight, while more experienced bowlers may roll a hook that involves making the ball start out straight but then curve toward a target, to increase likelihood of striking: USBC research{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}} has shown that shots most likely to strike enter the pocket at an angle of entry that is achievable only with a hook.{{sfn |Freeman |Hatfield |2018 |loc=Chapter 8 ("Why Does My Ball Hook?") }}

A complex interaction of a variety of factors influences ball motion and its effect on scoring results. Such factors may be categorized as:

Pins and pin carry

Bowling pins (with a maximum thickness of {{convert|4.766|in|cm|0}} at the waist) are "spotted" (placed) in four rows, forming an equilateral triangle with four pins on a side to form a tetractys.^[1] Neighboring pins are centered {{convert|12|in|cm|0}} apart, leaving a space of {{convert|7.234|in|cm|0}} between pins that can be bridged by a bowling ball of regulation diameter ({{convert|8.5|in|cm|0}}).^[5]

Pin carry—essentially, the probability of achieving a strike assuming the ball impacts in or near the pocket—varies with several factors.{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}} Even before a 2008 USBC pin carry study, it was known that entry angle and ball weight increase strike percentages.{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}} The 2008 study added the conclusion that a "high pocket" impact (especially when the ball is centered at "board 17.5") provides maximum likelihood of striking.{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}}{{sfn |Freeman |Hatfield |2018 |loc=Chapter 8 ("Why Does My Ball Hook?") }} The material of the pin deck and "kickback" (side) plates was also found to materially affect pin carry.{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}}

Ball delivery

Grips

A conventional grip, used on non-customized house balls and some custom-drilled balls, involves insertion of fingers to the second knuckle.^[13] A fingertip grip, involving insertion of fingers only to the first knuckle, enables greater revolution rates and resultant hook potential.^[13] A thumbless grip, often used by so-called "two-handed" bowlers, maximizes ball rotational speed ("rev rate").^[6]

Delivery style categories

Three widely recognized categories are stroker, cranker and tweener.^[7]^[17]

Alternative deliveries

Scoring

Traditional scoring

In traditional scoring,^[13] one point is scored for each pin that is knocked over, and when less than all ten pins are knocked down in two rolls in a frame (an open frame), the frame is scored with the total number of pins knocked down. However, when all ten pins are knocked down with either the first or second rolls of a frame (a mark), bonus pins are awarded as follows.

World Bowling scoring

The World Bowling scoring system—described as "current frame scoring"^[14]—awards pins as follows:

The maximum score is 300, achieved with ten, not twelve, consecutive strikes but with no bonus pins received in the tenth frame.^[15]^[32]

World Bowling scoring is thought to make bowling easier to follow than with traditional scoring,^[15] increase television viewership,^[14] and help bowling to become an Olympic sport.^[14]^[16]

Variant of World Bowling scoring

Another variant of scoring, a 12-frame system introduced at the November 2014 World Bowling Tour (WBT) finals, resembles golf's match play scoring in counting the greater number of frames won rather than measuring accumulated pinfall score.^[37] A frame may be won immediately by a higher pincount on the first roll of the frame, and a match may be won when one player is ahead by more frames than remain of the possible 12 frames.^[37] This variant reduces match length and scoring complexity for two-player matches.^[17]

History

Early history

Modern American bowling derives mainly from the German Kegelspiel, or kegeling, which used nine pins set in a diamond formation.^[18] Some sources refer to an 1841 Connecticut law that banned ninepin bowling because of its perceived association with gambling and crime, and people were said to circumvent the prohibition by adding a tenth pin;^[19]{{Better source|date=January 2019}} other sources call this story a mere fable.^[18] A painting thought to date from around 1810 shows British bowlers playing outdoors with a triangular formation of ten pins, which would predate the sport's asserted appearance in the United States.^[20]{{Better source|reason=Verifiable online source preferred.|date=January 2019}} In any event, the enjoyment of kegeling by German peasants contrasted with the lawn bowling that was reserved for the upper classes, thus beginning bowling's enduring reputation as a common man's sport.^[18]

In 1884, the Brunswick Corporation became the first American bowling ball manufacturer, and in 1914 introduced the Mineralite (hard rubber) ball that was considered so revolutionary that it was displayed at the Century of Progress Exposition in 1934.^[18] In 1886, Joe Thum—who would become known as the "father of bowling"—began opening bowling alleys and over decades strove to elevate the sport's image to compete with upper-class diversions such as theaters and opera houses.^[18]

In 1875, delegates from New York City and Brooklyn bowling clubs formed the National Bowling Association (NBA) to standardize rules, but disagreements prevailed.^[21] In 1887 Albert G. Spalding wrote Standard Rules for Bowling in the United States, and in the mid-1890s the United Bowling Clubs (UBC) was organized with 120 members.^[18] The American Bowling Congress (ABC) was established in 1895, followed by the Women's International Bowling Congress (WIBC) in the 1910s, such organizations promoting standardized rules and striving to improve the sport's image.^[18]

From 1920 to 1929, the number of ABC-sanctioned alleys grew from 450 to about 2,000, with Prohibition leading to the growth of family-appropriate "dry" alleys.^[18] The 1933 repeal of Prohibition allowed breweries to sponsor teams and bowlers, adding to bowling's reputation as a working class sport.^[18] Though at the turn of the twentieth century most bowling alleys were small establishments, post-Prohibition bowling lanes shifted from side entertainment at fancy Victorian venues or seedier saloons to independent establishments that embraced the Art Deco style and fit the era's perceived "need for speed".^[18]

1940s to early 1960s

Gottfried Schmidt invented the first mechanical pinsetter in his garage in 1936, one implementation of which was publicly exhibited in 1946 before AMF placed a production model into service in 1952.^[54]

The late 1940s through the early 1960s became known as the "golden age of bowling" because of its increasing popularity, with ABC membership growing from 700,000 (1940), to 1.1 million (1947), to 2.3 million (1958), to 4.5 million (1963),^[18]^[56] Women's International Bowling Congress membership growing from 82,000 (1940) to 866,000 (1958),^[56] American Junior Bowling Congress membership growing from 8,000 (1940) to 175,000 (1958),^[56] and sanctioned individual lanes growing from 44,500 (1947) to 159,000 (1963).^[18]

Bowling's growth was fueled by deployment of automatic mechanical pinsetters by AMF (1952) and Brunswick (1955), television broadcasts (said to be "ubiquitous" in the 1950s), modernization and stylization of establishments with amenities to attract broader clientele, and formation of bowling leagues.^[18] Though President Truman had installed a bowling alley in the White House in 1947,^[18] a report of the American Society of Planning Officials in 1958 characterized bowling alleys as the "poor man's country club".^[23]

ABC bylaws had included a "white-males-only" clause since its inception in the 1890s, but numerous lobbying efforts and legal actions after World War II by civil rights and labor organizations led to a reversal of this policy in 1950.^[24]

In the 1930s and 1940s, professional bowling was dominated by “beer leagues” with many of the best bowlers sponsored by beer companies, but by 1965 the PBA tour was televised nationally on ABC Sports with sponsors such as Coca-Cola and Ford.^[65]

In parallel with professional bowling was "action bowling"—bowling matches based on money bets—historically associated with the New York underworld from the 1940s to the 1970s.^[65]

Late 1960s to 1980

The first tenpin lanes in Europe had been installed in Sweden in 1909, but attempts to popularize the sport in Europe were unsuccessful over the next several decades, though hundreds of lanes were installed on U.S. military bases in the U.K. during World War II.^[26] Various countries developed the sport to some extent, and the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ; now World Bowling) was formed in 1952 to coordinate international amateur competition.^[26]

A firmer establishment of the sport began in the U.K. in 1960 in London (Stamford Hill) in January 1960,^[27] and the British Tenpin Bowling Association was formed the following year.^[26] Various other countries, including Australia, Mexico and Japan, adopted the trend over the ensuing decade.^[26] After initial faddish growth the U.K., however, the sport did not thrive as it did in the U.S., and by the 1970s many British bowling alleys were converted to serve competing pastimes, such as bingo.^[28]

In the 1960s and 1970s, top bowling professionals made twice as much money as NFL football stars, received million-dollar contracts, and were treated as international celebrities.^[65] The $100,000 Firestone Tournament of Champions launched in 1965, in a decade that saw ABC membership peak at almost 4.6 million male bowlers.^[29] The number of sanctioned bowling alleys peaked at about 12,000 in the mid-1960s,^[23] mostly in blue-collar urban areas,^[30] and Women’s International Bowling Congress (WIBC) membership peaked at 4.2 million members in 1979.^[31]

The "Lane Master" automatic lane cleaning and conditioning machine was first deployed in the 1960s.^[29]

In the late 1960s, the participation sport of bowling found itself competing with spectator sports and outdoor recreational activities.^[18] The number of certified bowling centers was to eventually decline from its 1960s high of 12,000^[23] to 6,542 in 1998^[30] and 3,976 in 2013.^[23] The decline was noted acutely in waning league participation over the intervening decades.^[23]^[32]

1980 to 2000

Tournament prize funds in the 1980s included the PBA National Championship ($135,000, its largest) and the Firestone Tournament of Champions ($150,000), and PBA membership approached 2,500.^[33] Ten-pin bowling became an exhibition sport at the 1988 Summer Olympics (Seoul),^[33] was a medal sport at the 1991 Pan American Games (Havana),^[34] and was included in the 1998 Commonwealth Games (Kuala Lumpur).^[35]

Outside elite and professional bowling, participation in leagues—traditionally the more profitable end of the business—declined from a 1980 peak (8 million), compelling alleys to further diversify into entertainment amenities.^[23] While league bowling decreased by 40 percent between 1980 and 1993, the total number of bowlers actually increased by 10 percent during that period, with nearly 80 million Americans going bowling at least once during 1993.^[32] In 1995, the National Bowling Stadium (Reno, Nevada) was constructed at a cost of $47.5 million, but the PBA Pro Bowlers Tour TV program was canceled in 1997 after a 35-year run.^[34]

In 1991, equipment manufacturer DBA Products released "The Lane Walker"—the first computer-driven lane cleaning and oiling machine, programmable to clean up to 50 lanes.^[34]

The early 1990s brought development of reactive resin ("reactive") balls with chemically "tacky" surfaces that enhance traction to dramatically enhance hook and substantially increase the likelihood of striking, raising average scores even for less experienced bowlers.^[36]

The Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association (SGMA) reported 1997 bowling product sales of $215 million, the SGMA president claiming an increase in popularity to bowling alley remodeling, technological innovations in balls and lanes, computerized scoring, and promotion by bowling organizations.^[37]

2000 to present

From 1998 to 2013, the number of American bowling centers fell by one-fourth.^[23] Similarly, in the two decades following 1997, the number of USBC-certified lanes—also indicative of business viability—declined by one-third.^[96] This business decline is often attributed to waning league participation: USBC membership—indicative of league participation that was the main source of revenue—declined by two-thirds in those two decades,^[96] and the portion of alley revenue attributable to leagues is estimated to have dropped from 70% to 40%.^[23]

Political scientist Robert D. Putnam's book Bowling Alone (2000) asserts, with some controversy, that the retreat from league bowling epitomizes a broader societal decline in social, civic and community engagement in the U.S.^[23] Estimates of the number of total (league and non-league) bowlers in the U.S. vary, from 51.6 million (2007, research firm White Hutchinson)^[100] to 71 million (2009, USBC),^[38] the USBC stating in 2019 that bowling is still the #1 participation sport in the U.S.^[39] With a continual decline in league participation,^[96] revenues from league bowling, once at 70%, fell to 40% in 2007,^[100] in an era promoting "party bowling"^[65] and experiencing a shift from blue-collar participants to open-play (non-league) family-oriented clientele in combined bowling and entertainment centers.^[40]

More broadly, the International Bowling Museum stated in 2016 that bowling is played by 95 million people in more than 90 countries.^[41]

In contrast to the U.S., the 2000s and 2010s brought a bowling renaissance in the U.K., achieved by accommodating sophisticated modern tastes by providing (for example) retro style bowling alleys outfitted with 1950s Americana, "boutique bowling", "VIP lanes", and cameras for instant replays, and by rejuvenating bowling "alleys" into diverse-entertainment bowling "centres".^[42]^[43] The population of ten-pin bowling centres grew from a low of barely 50 (in the 1980s) to over 200 (2006),^[42] with almost a third of Britons going bowling in 2016 and league participation growing over 20% over two years (2015-2017).^[43]

In professional bowling, during the 2012-2013 season the average yearly salary of the ten highest-earning PBA competitors was less than US$155,000, and the average for the remaining 250 competitors was $6,500—all much less than a rookie NFL football player’s minimum base salary of $375,000 in a reversal from bowling's peak popularity in the 1960s.^[65]

Beginning late in the decade of the 2000s, the two-handed approach became popularized, first by Australian Jason Belmonte.^[8] It was hoped by some that the controversial style would boost popularity of the sport.^[8]

Though ten-pin bowling was a demonstration sport in the 1988 Summer Olympics (Seoul)^[33] and has been included in the Pan American Games since 1991,^[44] after making the short list for inclusion in the 2020 Summer Olympics (Tokyo), it was cut.^[45] One commentator noted that the sport's limited geographic popularity (the U.S., Australia and a few European and South American countries), and aging demographic of those who follow the sport, make it difficult to convince an Olympic Committee that wants to appeal to youth.^[45]

Bowling organizations

International

United Kingdom

The British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA, formed in 1961) is the official governing body of tenpin bowling in the country, is recognized by World Bowling as the official sanctioning body in England, and as such "is responsible for the protection, integrity and development of the sport".^[123] Its stated vision is "to ensure that all people, irrespective of their age, disability, ethnic origin, marital status, sexual orientation or social status have a genuine and equal opportunity to participate in the sport at all levels and in all roles".^[48]

The National Association of Youth Bowling Clubs (NAYBC) is a BTBA subcommittee serving youth bowlers and youth bowling clubs.^[49]

The British Universities Tenpin Bowling Association (BUTBA, formed in 2008) organizes bowling events for present and former university and college students.^[50]

The Tenpin Bowling Proprietors Association (TBPA, formed in 1961 as an umbrella organization) is a trade association for the British ten-pin bowling industry.^[51]

United States

The United States Bowling Congress (USBC) was formed as the governing body for the U.S. on January 1, 2005 by a merger of

As the national governing body for bowling, its stated mission is to provide services, resources and the standards for the sport,^[52] its stated goals including growing the sport and promoting values of "credibility, dedication, excellence, heritage, inclusiveness, integrity, philanthropy and sportsmanship".^[53]

Museums

The International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame is located on the International Bowling Campus in Arlington, Texas, U.S.^[54]

Notable tournaments

The QubicaAMF Bowling World Cup (begun in 1965) is recognized as bowling's largest event in terms of number of countries competing, according to the USBC in 2018.^[56]

The Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) Tour includes dozens of events annually, mainly at U.S. locations.^[57] The PBA Tour includes "major" championship events:

The United States Bowling Congress (USBC) has various tournaments for the PBA tour, PWBA, youth and seniors, including the USBC Masters and U.S. Open (both major tournaments on the PBA tour), and USBC Queens and U.S. Women's Open (both major tournaments on the PWBA tour), plus the USBC Team USA Trials/U.S. National Amateur Bowling Championships.^[59] Additionally, the USBC has regional tournaments^[60] and certifies local tournaments.^[61]

The European Tenpin Bowling Federation (ETBF) owns the European Bowling Tour (organized in 2000),^[62] including its final tournament, the European Bowling Tour Masters (first edition: 2008).^[63]

The Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Federation (CTBF), made up of World Bowling member federations within the Commonwealth of Nations, owns the Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships, which has held tournaments at irregular intervals since 2002.^[64]

The Weber Cup is an annual, three-day USA vs. Europe tournament, named after Dick Weber,^[65] that began in 2000 and has been held almost exclusively in the U.K.^[66]

In the decade of the 2000s, the World Ranking Masters, owned by World Bowling, ranked standings in the Pan American Bowling Confederation (PABCON), Asian Bowling Federation (ABF), and European Tenpin Bowling Federation (ETBF).^[67]

Though ten-pin bowling has not progressed beyond a demonstration sport at the Olympic Games,^[33]^[45] international games modeled after the Olympics (awarding medals) do include the sport, including the Asian Games (governed by the Olympic Council of Asia, OCA)^[68] and the Pan American Games (governed by the Pan American Sports Organization, PASO).^[69] The Maccabiah Games (governed by the Israeli Bowling Federation, IBF, with events played according to WTBA-ETBF rules) host ten-pin tournaments as medal events.^[70]

Leagues

Usually, each team is scheduled to oppose each of the other teams over the course of a season.^[73] Position rounds—in which the first place team opposes the second place team, third place opposes fourth place, and so on—are often inserted into the season schedule.^[74]

Customarily, team position standings are computed after each series, awarding a first number of points for each game won and a second number of points for achieving the higher team score for that series, the particular numbers being specified in each league's rules.^[75]^[155] Further, in leagues having "match point" scoring, individual bowlers on one team are matched against respective members of the opposing team, the winners receiving points that supplement their team's game and series points.^[76]

The number of league bowlers in the U.S. peaked at 8 million in 1980,^[33] declining to approximately 1.3 million in 2018.^[71]

Notable professional achievements

Perfect (300) game

Ernest Fosberg (East Rockford, Ill.) bowled the first recognized 300 in 1902, before awards were given out.^[171] In 1908, A.C. Jellison and Homer Sanders (both of St. Louis) each bowled 300 games in the same season, the ABC awarding the gold medal to Jellison after a three-game tie-breaker match without regard to the chronological order of their accomplishments.^[85]

On January 7, 2006, Elliot John Crosby became the youngest British bowler to bowl a BTBA-sanctioned 300 game at the age of 12 years, 2 months and 10 days, breaking the 1994 record of Rhys Parfitt (age 13 years, 4 months).^[86]

On November 17, 2013, Hannah Diem (Seminole, Florida) became the youngest American bowler to bowl a USBC-certified 300 game at the age of 9 years, 6 months and 19 days, breaking the 2006 record of Chaz Dennis (age 10) and the 2006 female record of Brandie Reamy (age 12).^[87]

Jeremy Sonnenfeld (Sioux Falls, S.D.) rolled the first certified 900 series in 1997.^[88] A well-publicized court-contested 900 series by Glenn Allison in 1982 was denied certification due to non-conforming lane conditions.^[89]

"Score inflation" controversy

The 905 perfect games that were rolled during the 1968-69 season increased 38-fold to 34,470 in the 1998-99 season.^[77] Likewise, the number of perfect-game league bowlers increased from about one of 3150 (1900—1980) to about one of 27 (2007), a greater-than-hundredfold increase that many thought threatened to jeopardize the integrity of the sport.{{sfn |Stremmel |Ridenour |Stervenz |2008 }} Specifically, the USBC Technical Director wrote that the "USBC is concerned that technology has overtaken player skill in determining success in the sport of bowling," announcing in 2007 the completion of a ball motion study undertaken "to strike a better balance between player skill and

Separately, a USBC pin carry study completed in about 2008 found that dramatically increased entry angles improve pin carry{{sfn |Benner |Mours |Ridenour | 2009}} to result in higher scores—regardless of whether the bowlers supplied additional effort or improved their skill.{{sfn |Stremmel |Ridenour |Stervenz |2008 }} Among the factors allowing higher scores were technological advances in coverstock and core design{{sfn |Stremmel |Ridenour |Stervenz |2008 }} combined with improved lane surfaces and accommodative oil patterns.^[91]

Specifically, the reactive resin balls and particle balls that came out in the 1990s increased frictional engagement with the lane to provide greater hook potential that made high entry angles easier to achieve.^[92] Moreover, changes in lane surface technology, as well as the introduction of voids into pins to make them lighter and more top-heavy, helped to raise average scores as early as the 1970s.^[181] Expanded choices in oil viscosity and electronically controlled lane oiling machines permitted alley owners to customize house oil patterns to optimize the advantages of the new ball technologies.^[93] Technological progress allowed some 1990s league scores to surpass those of professionals in the 1950s.^[93]

Responding to such concerns, the USBC initiated "sport bowling" leagues and tournaments that provide "sport", "challenge" and "PBA Experience" oil patterns that are more challenging than the accommodative patterns of typical house shots.^[93] Still, the USBC has encountered enduring issues concerning how to maintain "average integrity" (fair handicapping) across leagues using oil patterns of differing difficulty.^[94]

As a result of various USBC studies, including a bowling technology study^[95] published in February 2018, the USBC Equipment and Specifications Committee established new specifications focusing mainly on balls.^[187] The overall result of the new specifications was said to slightly limit hook potential, more specifically eliminating balance holes and setting a new specification for oil absorption.^[187] The USBC stated that the new specifications will slow oil pattern transition, cause bowlers to move less, and keep the same scoring pace with lower oil volume.^[96]

Ten-pin bowling in media

Broadcast of events

Mainstream media portrayal

Founded in 1961, ABC Sports' Pro Bowlers Tour, was viewed by millions and—with various entertain-oriented programs including Make That Spare, Celebrity Bowling and Bowling For Dollars—confirmed the sport's popularity.^[25] Over decades, however, media coverage declined, with the Pro Bowlers Tour being canceled in 1997.^[34] The decline in mainstream media's coverage has been attributed to a variety of factors, including small purses (winnings) for professional tournaments, declining participation in league bowling, the perceived demographic of bowlers (old, or of low social class), waning popularity with members of the public, lack of corporate sponsorship, and lack of an inspiring bowling star.^[98] In addition to the stereotype of the beer-drinking blue-collar bowler in a smoky bowling alley, the decline in media coverage has been attributed to the perception that bowling is less an athletic sport (not being in the Olympic Games) than a recreational pastime (such as for children's birthday parties).^[194] This perception is reinforced by the easy lane conditions provided to bowling leagues that enable league bowlers to achieve scores rivaling those of professionals who must bowl on more challenging lane conditions.^[99]

In print

In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Albus Dumbledore is a fan of ten-pin bowling.^[102]

In film

In the animated short The Bowling Alley Cat (1942), Tom and Jerry battle inside a bowling center.

In Dreamer (1979), Tim Matheson plays a man aspiring to be a professional bowler who faces a challenger played by Dick Weber.

In Greedy (1994), Michael J. Fox stars as a professional bowler, with actual professional bowlers appear as extras.

The Farrelly brothers' comedy Kingpin (1996), a lowbrow bowling comedy about which Randy Quaid said in an interview, "If we can't laugh at bowling, what can we laugh at?"^[34]

In the Coen Brothers' The Big Lebowski (1998), John Goodman pulls a gun out to threaten a competitor who stepped over the foul line.^[34]

In the Disney Channel's Alley Cats Strike (2000), a school's star athlete joins the bowling team.

Video games

Since the electronic gaming industry began, ten-pin bowling has been seen in many formats on many big name gaming machines. Mattel's Intellivision game line introduced PBA Bowling, the first fully electronic bowling game, in 1980. JAMDAT Mobile (now known as EA Mobile), made the Jamdat Bowling series. Some of the many bowling games include PlayStation's "Bowling Xciting", "Black Market Bowling", "Strike Force Bowling", "Ten Pin Alley", "Brunswick Circuit Pro Bowling", "King of Bowling" and "Big Strike Bowling". Some of those on the PC are "Fast Lanes Bowling", "Flintstones: Bedrock Bowling", "Arcade Bowling", "Bowling Mania", "10 Pin Bowling Fever" and "GutterBall 3D" amongst many others on other gaming units.

More recently, Bowling appeared as one of the games featured in Wii Sports for Nintendo's Wii. To throw the ball, the player swings the Wii Remote in a motion similar to throwing a real bowling ball. Bowling returned in the sequel Wii Sports Resort, with the controls adapted for the Wii MotionPlus; the Resort incarnation also includes versions with obstacles and with a 100-pin setup. High Velocity Bowling, released for PlayStation 3 in December 2007, likewise mimics the arm movement using the motion sensors of the "Six-Axis" controller.

Ten-pin bowling is also featured as one of the various minigames in Grand Theft Auto IV, Tekken: Dark Resurrection, Tekken Tag Tournament, Mario Party 8, Yakuza 3, and Yakuza 4 that the character can play.

See also

Publications

References

1. ^¹²{{cite web |last1=Carrubba |first1=Rich |title=Bowling Ball Evolution |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/bowling-ball-evolution |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215354/https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/bowling-ball-evolution |archivedate=September 17, 2018 |date=June 2012 |deadurl=no }}
2. ^{{cite web |last1=Siefers |first1=Nick (USBC research engineer) |title=Understanding the relationship between core and cover stock |url=https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/2324 |website=BowlingDigital.com (Courtesy of USBC Equipment Specification and Certification) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011257/https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/2324 |archivedate=September 20, 2018 |date=April 23, 2007 |deadurl=no }}
3. ^{{cite web |title=How Should My Bowling Ball Be Drilled? |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/how-should-my-bowling-ball-be-drilled |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711104913/https://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/how-should-my-bowling-ball-be-drilled |archivedate=July 11, 2015 |date=January 2015 |deadurl=no }}
4. ^{{cite web |last1=Hickland |first1=Ronald |title=What is the difference between Pin up and Pin down Drilling on a Bowling Ball? |url=https://ctdbowling.com/blogs/news/what-is-the-difference-between-pin-up-and-pin-down-drilling-on-a-bowling-ball |website=CTDbowling.com (news section) |date=April 11, 2017}}
5. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web |author1=United State Bowling Congress (USBC) |title=USBC Equipment Specifications and Certifications Manual |url=https://bowl.com/uploadedFiles/Equipment_Specs/Information/2012FebESManualWEBINTERACTIVE.pdf |website=bowl.com |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/74zjEHJUm |archivedate=December 28, 2018 |date=February 2012 |deadurl=no }}
6. ^¹²{{cite news |last1=Vernoy |first1=Lee |title=Looking for a bowling ball? Here's the guy to see |url=https://www.greatfallstribune.com/story/sports/2017/12/03/looking-bowling-ball-heres-guy-see/918228001/ |work=Great Falls Tribune |date=December 3, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131190442/https://www.greatfallstribune.com/story/sports/2017/12/03/looking-bowling-ball-heres-guy-see/918228001/ |archivedate=January 31, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
7. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web |author=Wallace, Rich |url=http://www.kingpin-bowling.com/understanding-bowling-styles/ |title=Understanding Bowling Styles |website=kingpin-bowling.com |date=January 6, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521155110/http://www.kingpin-bowling.com/understanding-bowling-styles/ |archivedate=May 21, 2013 }}
8. ^¹²{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Adam |title=Young Australian Puts a New Spin on Bowling: He Throws Two-Handed |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123379401410650043 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=February 5, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331011101/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123379401410650043 |archivedate=March 31, 2015 |deadurl=no }}
9. ^{{cite web |last1=Thompson |first1=Ted |title=Two-handed delivery |url=http://www.kegel.net/wpa/2016/3/14/xh6qmgxy6mqer0ckfsn547mkndhlh8 |website=Kegel.net |publisher=Kegel, LLC |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121121743/http://www.kegel.net/wpa/2016/3/14/xh6qmgxy6mqer0ckfsn547mkndhlh8 |archivedate=January 21, 2019 |date=March 20, 2010 |deadurl=no}}
10. ^{{cite web |last1=Seymour |first1=Dustin |title=2-Handed Bowling: Is It A Fad Or The Future? |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/2-handed-bowling-is-it-a-fad-or-the-future |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731043941/http://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/2-handed-bowling-is-it-a-fad-or-the-future |archivedate=July 31, 2011 |date=2011 |deadurl=no }}
11. ^¹²{{cite web |title=The Game » Styles |url=http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.styles |website=TenPinBowling.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614205728/http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.styles |archivedate=June 14, 2007 |date=2004 |deadurl=yes }}
12. ^{{cite web |last1=Mullen |first1=Michelle |title=Determining Stance Distance & Position |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/Determining-Stance-Distance--Position |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity education section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201042139/https://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/Determining-Stance-Distance--Position |archivedate=February 1, 2019 |date=September 9, 2018 |deadurl=no }} Excerpt from Bowling Fundamentals - Second Edition.
13. ^{{cite web |title=Chapter 2: General Playing Rules / Rule 2 – The Game |url=http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rulebook/2018-2019Rulebook.pdf |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320155527/http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rulebook/2018-2019Rulebook.pdf |archivedate=March 20, 2019 |date=2018 |deadurl=no }}
14. ^¹²{{cite web|last1=Mackay |first1=Duncan |title=New scoring system introduced for World Bowling Tour finals to try to help sport's Olympic ambitions |url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1034575/new-scoring-system-introduced-for-world-bowling-tour-finals-to-try-to-help-sports-olympic-ambitions |website=InsideTheGames.biz |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6kV68ToP2?url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1034575/new-scoring-system-introduced-for-world-bowling-tour-finals-to-try-to-help-sports-olympic-ambitions |archivedate=September 13, 2016 |date=February 20, 2016 |deadurl=no |df= }}
15. ^¹{{cite web |title=Weber to go to World Scoring |url=http://www.webercup.com/weber-to-go-to-world-scoring/ |publisher=Weber Cup |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913115813/http://www.webercup.com/weber-to-go-to-world-scoring/ |archivedate=September 13, 2016 |date=July 29, 2016 |deadurl=no }}
16. ^¹{{cite web|last1=Mackay |first1=Duncan |title=World Bowling Tour final winner backs new scoring system if it helps Olympic campaign |url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1034662/world-bowling-tour-final-winner-backs-new-scoring-system-if-it-helps-olympic-campaign |website=InsideTheGames.biz |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6kUWF8pN0?url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1034662/world-bowling-tour-final-winner-backs-new-scoring-system-if-it-helps-olympic-campaign |archivedate=September 13, 2016 |date=February 21, 2016 |deadurl=no |df= }}
17. ^¹²{{cite web|title=New Scoring System for Competitive Bowling to be Unveiled During World Bowling Tour Finals at WSOB VI |url=http://www.worldbowling.org/media/2014/10/new-scoring-system-for-competitive-bowling-to-be-unveiled-during-world-bowling-tour-finals-at-wsob-vi/ |publisher=World Bowling |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107145509/http://www.worldbowling.org/media/2014/10/new-scoring-system-for-competitive-bowling-to-be-unveiled-during-world-bowling-tour-finals-at-wsob-vi/ |archivedate=November 7, 2014 |date=October 2014 |deadurl=no |df= }}
18. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴{{cite web|title=Bowling |work=St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture |year=2002 |author=Woloson, Wendy |publisher=Gale Group |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100164/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041214112113/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100164 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=December 14, 2004 |accessdate=March 31, 2006 }}
19. ^{{cite news |last1=Shepherd |first1=Jeremy |title=Final frame looms for longstanding North Van bowling alley |url=https://www.nsnews.com/news/final-frame-looms-for-longstanding-north-van-bowling-alley-1.23245713 |work=North Shore News |date=March 30, 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707052103/https://www.nsnews.com/news/final-frame-looms-for-longstanding-north-van-bowling-alley-1.23245713 |archivedate=July 7, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
20. ^Pluckhahn, Bruce (December 1988). "Bowling Games People Play". Bowler's Journal. Page 121.
21. ^{{cite web |title=History of bowling |url=https://www.bowl.com/About/About_Home/History_of_bowling/ |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030204318/https://www.bowl.com/About/About_Home/History_of_bowling/ |archivedate=October 30, 2016 |deadurl=no }}
22. ^{{cite web |last1=Schmidt |first1=Gottfried J. |title=Bowling Pin Setting Apparatus |url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/3c/bb/06/9bb96bff329e70/US2208605.pdf |website=patentimages.storage.googleapis.com |publisher=United States Patent and Trademark Office |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128034516/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/3c/bb/06/9bb96bff329e70/US2208605.pdf |archivedate=January 28, 2019 |date=July 23, 1940 |deadurl=no }}
23. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹{{cite news |url=http://www.freep.com/story/money/business/michigan/2015/05/09/bowling-michigan-rebound-decline/26924689/ |title=Is bowling in its final frames — or on a roll? |last=Witsil |first=Frank |newspaper=Detroit Free Press |date=May 9, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126122512/https://www.freep.com/story/money/business/michigan/2015/05/09/bowling-michigan-rebound-decline/26924689/ |archivedate=January 26, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
24. ^{{cite web |title=Afro-Americans in New York Life and History: The integration of the American Bowling Congress: the Buffalo experience |date=July 2005 |author=Rigali, James. H. |author2=Walter, John C. |publisher=Afro-American Historical Association of the Niagara Frontier |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SAF/is_2_29/ai_n15763168 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615073400/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SAF/is_2_29/ai_n15763168 |deadurl=yes |archivedate=June 15, 2006 |accessdate=March 31, 2006 }}
25. ^¹²{{cite web|title=The Game >> History |year=2004 |website=TenpinBowling.org |url=http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.history |accessdate=March 31, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060415013813/http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.history |archivedate=April 15, 2006 |deadurl=yes }}
26. ^¹²³{{cite web |last1=Pluckhahn |first1=J. Bruce |title=Bowling |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/bowling#ref29799 |website=Britannica.com (Encyclopaedia Britannica) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919163637/https://www.britannica.com/sports/bowling |archivedate=September 19, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
27. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling History 101: The First British Bowling Alley |url=https://www.tenpin.co.uk/blog/bowling-history-101-the-first-british-bowling-alley/ |website=Tenpin.co.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108095625/https://www.tenpin.co.uk/blog/bowling-history-101-the-first-british-bowling-alley/ |archivedate=November 8, 2016 |date=2014 |deadurl=no }}
28. ^{{cite news |last1=Ruddy |first1=Austin J |title=Bowled over by Leicester's Top Rank entertainment: The classic era of Leicester's nightlife, 1960-1980 |url=https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/history/bowled-over-leicesters-top-rank-260974 |work=Leicestershire Live |date=August 1, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117095937/https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/history/bowled-over-leicesters-top-rank-260974 |archivedate=January 17, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
29. ^¹²{{cite web |title=Bowling through the Decades: the 1960s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades60s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020140231/https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades60s.html |archivedate=October 20, 2017 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
30. ^¹{{cite web |author1=Buzzle Staff |title=Bowling Was The Sport of Kings Back Then and Now of Working Men |url=https://sportsaspire.com/bowling-sport-of-kings-working-men |website=buzzle.com (link to SportsAspire.com) |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/75lvlkEP2 |archivedate=January 28, 2019 |date=July 22, 2017 |deadurl=no }}
31. ^¹{{cite web |title=Bowling Through The Decades: The 1970s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades70s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309035047/https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades70s.html |archivedate=March 9, 2007 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
32. ^¹{{cite book |last1=Putnam |first1=Robert D. |title=Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital |pages=223–234 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2000 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-62397-6_12 |isbn=978-1-349-62399-0 }} Expanded from an article in Journal of Democracy, January 1995, pp. 65-78.
33. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web |title=Bowling Through The Decades: The 1980s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades80s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309035052/https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades80s.html |archivedate=March 9, 2007 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
34. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{cite web |title=Bowling Through The Decades: The 1990s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades90s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309035109/https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades90s.html |archivedate=March 9, 2007 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
35. ^{{cite web |title=1998 - Kuala Lumpur |url=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/5288/1998-kuala-lumpur- |website=InsideTheGames.biz |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614031546/http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/5288/1998-kuala-lumpur- |archivedate=June 14, 2017 |deadurl=no}}
36. ^{{cite web |last1=Carrubba |first1=Rich |title=Bowling Ball Evolution |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/bowling-ball-evolution |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215354/https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/bowling-ball-evolution |archivedate=September 17, 2018 |date=June 2012 |deadurl=no }}
37. ^{{cite web|title=American Demographics: Bowling throws a strike |date=July 1998 |author=Krakowka, Lisa |publisher=Media Central, Inc. |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4021/is_1998_July/ai_53179558 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040926050703/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4021/is_1998_July/ai_53179558 |deadurl=yes |archivedate=September 26, 2004 |accessdate=April 2, 2006 }} The SGMA is now (2019) The Sports & Fitness Industry Association (SFIA).
38. ^{{cite web |title=Press Room / Bowlers |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104070752/http://www.bowl.com/pressroom/ |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |date=2010}} Link is to a January 2011 archive of USBC website describing 2009 numbers.
39. ^{{cite web |title=Bowlers |url=https://bowl.com/Press_Room/Press_Room_Home/Press_Room/ |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress "Press Room") |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129175449/https://bowl.com/Press_Room/Press_Room_Home/Press_Room/ |archivedate=January 29, 2019 |date=January 2019 |deadurl=no }}
40. ^¹²{{cite web |title=What's happening to bowling? |url=https://www.whitehutchinson.com/leisure/articles/whats-happening-to-bowling.shtml |publisher=White Hutchinson |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420150041/http://www.whitehutchinson.com/leisure/articles/whats-happening-to-bowling.shtml |archivedate=April 20, 2009 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
41. ^{{cite web |title=History of Bowling |url=https://www.bowlingmuseum.com/Visit/Education/History-of-Bowling |website=BowlingMuseum.com (International Bowling Museum & Hall of Fame) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608090410/http://www.bowlingmuseum.com/Visit/Education/History-of-Bowling |archivedate=June 8, 2016 |date=2016 |deadurl=no }}
42. ^¹{{cite news |last1=Maley |first1=Jacqueline |title=Tenpin bowling is reborn as the new cool |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/mar/20/britishidentity.uknews2 |work=The Guardian |date=March 19, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130031937/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/mar/20/britishidentity.uknews2 |archivedate=January 30, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
43. ^¹{{cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Rob |title=Tenpin alleys boom as Britain is bowled over by retro vibes of 1950s America |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jul/22/tenpin-bowling-alleys-retro-vibes-1950s-america |work=The Guardian |date=July 22, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102224222/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jul/22/tenpin-bowling-alleys-retro-vibes-1950s-america |archivedate=January 2, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
44. ^{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Leslie |title=10 Pan Am Games sports you won’t see at the Olympics |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/1914217/10-pan-am-games-sports-you-wont-see-at-the-olympics/ |work=Global News (Canada) |date=April 1, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915064355/https://globalnews.ca/news/1914217/10-pan-am-games-sports-you-wont-see-at-the-olympics/ |archivedate=September 15, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
45. ^¹²{{cite news |last1=Dougherty |first1=Pete |title=To grow, bowling needs Olympics |url=https://www.timesunion.com/sports/article/To-grow-bowling-needs-Olympics-13440627.php |work=Times Union (Albany, NY) |date=December 3, 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204114536/https://www.timesunion.com/sports/article/To-grow-bowling-needs-Olympics-13440627.php |archivedate=December 4, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
46. ^¹²{{cite web |title=World Bowling / About |url=https://www.worldbowling.org/about/ |website=WorldBowling.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111055011/https://www.worldbowling.org/about/ |archivedate=January 11, 2019 |date=2019 |deadurl=no }}
47. ^{{cite web |title=WTBA Rules / 2015-06-01 / Introduction / Background |url=https://www.worldbowling.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/WTBA-Statues-and-Playing-Rules-2015-06-01.pdf |website=WorldBowling.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318175203/https://www.worldbowling.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/WTBA-Statues-and-Playing-Rules-2015-06-01.pdf |archivedate=March 18, 2019 |page=7 |date=June 1, 2015 |deadurl=no }}
48. ^¹{{cite web |title=About |url=https://btba.org.uk/about/ |website=btba.org.uk |publisher=British Tenpin Bowling Association |accessdate=March 14, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314031047/https://btba.org.uk/about/ |archivedate=March 14, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
49. ^{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions / + What is the NAYBC? |url=https://naybc.btba.org.uk/faq/ |website=naybc.btba.org.uk |publisher=National Association of Youth Bowling Clubs |accessdate=March 17, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317203945/https://naybc.btba.org.uk/faq/ |archivedate=March 17, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
50. ^{{cite web |title=Home / Coming Events |url=http://butba.co.uk/ |website=butba.co.uk/ |publisher=British University Tenpin Bowling Association |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904032022/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/http://butba.co.uk/ |archivedate=September 4, 2014 |deadurl=no}} The 2014 archive shows more explanatory detail.
51. ^{{cite web |title=What is the TBPA? |url=https://www.gotenpin.co.uk/about/what-is-tbpa |website=gotenpin.co.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919173511/http://gotenpin.co.uk/about/what-is-tbpa |archivedate=September 19, 2017 |date=2019 |dead-url=no }}
52. ^{{cite web |title=About USBC |url=https://bowl.com/About/About_Home/About_USBC/ |website=Bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress) |accessdate=March 13, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001165003/https://www.bowl.com/About/About_Home/About_USBC/ |archivedate=October 1, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
53. ^¹{{cite web |title=USBC, ABC, WIBC and Team USA Bowling |url=https://bowl.com/About/About_Home/USBC,_ABC,_WIBC_and_Team_USA_Bowling/ |website=Bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress) |accessdate=March 13, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311002354/http://www.bowl.com/About/About_Home/USBC,_ABC,_WIBC_and_Team_USA_Bowling/ |archivedate=March 11, 2017 |deadurl=no}}
54. ^{{cite web |title=About / Overview |url=https://www.bowlingmuseum.com/About |website=BowlingMuseum.com (International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame) |accessdate=March 13, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621100843/http://www.bowlingmuseum.com/About |archivedate=June 21, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
55. ^{{cite web |title=World Championships |url=https://www.worldbowling.org/events-results/world-championships/ |website=WorldBowling.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324222032/https://www.worldbowling.org/events-results/world-championships/ |archivedate=March 24, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
56. ^{{cite web |last1=Cannizzaro |first1=Matt |title=Opening Ceremony Kicks Off 2018 QubicaAMF World Cup In Las Vegas |url=https://bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622332042 |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress, USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106074947/https://www.bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622332042 |archivedate=November 6, 2018 |date=November 5, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
57. ^{{cite web |title=2019 Go Bowling! PBA Tour Schedule |url=https://www.pba.com/Tournaments/Season/132 |website=pba.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322190525/https://www.pba.com/Tournaments/Season/132 |archivedate=March 22, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
58. ^{{cite web |title=Fox PBA 2019 TV Schedule |url=https://www.pba.com/Content/Files/Downloads/PBA_Fox_schedule_2019.pdf |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326032622/https://www.pba.com/Content/Files/Downloads/PBA_Fox_schedule_2019.pdf |archivedate=March 26, 2019 |date=2019 |deadurl=no }} Major events are in red text.
59. ^{{cite web |title=Championship Tournaments / Tournament Information |url=https://www.bowl.com/tournaments/ |website=bowl.com |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216104210/https://bowl.com/Tournaments/ |archivedate=February 16, 2019 |deadurl=no}}
60. ^{{cite web |title=2019 USA Bowling Regional Tournament Schedule |url=https://bowl.com/USABowlingRegionals/ |website=Bowl.com |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227081821/https://www.bowl.com/USABowlingRegionals/ |archivedate=December 27, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
61. ^{{cite web |title=Tournaments |url=https://www.bowl.com/uploadedFiles/Associations/USBC_Access/Tournaments7-14-10.pdf |website=Bowl.com |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513205414/http://bowl.com/uploadedFiles/Associations/USBC_Access/Tournaments7-14-10.pdf |archivedate=May 13, 2012 |page=1 |date=August 1, 2010 |deadurl=no }} ● {{cite web |title=Introduction to Tournament Bowling |url=https://bowl.com/Welcome/Welcome_Home/Introduction_to_Tournament_Bowling/ |website=Bowl.com |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |accessdate=March 27, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203025251/http://bowl.com/Welcome/Welcome_Home/Introduction_to_Tournament_Bowling/ |archivedate=December 3, 2016}}
62. ^{{cite web |title=European Bowling Tour: A Historical Review |url=http://etbf.eu/his-ran-ebt-history/ |website=etbf.eu |publisher=European Tenpin Bowling Federation |accessdate=March 25, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325042826/http://etbf.eu/his-ran-ebt-history/ |archivedate=March 25, 2019 |deadurl=no}}
63. ^{{cite web |title=European Bowling Tour Masters: A Historical Review |url=http://etbf.eu/his-ran-ebm-history/ |website=etbf.eu |publisher=European Tenpin Bowling Federation |accessdate=March 25, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325174402/http://etbf.eu/wp-content/uploads/HIS-RAN-EBM-History.pdf |archivedate=March 25, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
64. ^{{cite web |title=Commonwealth Championships: A Historical Review |url=http://etbf.eu/wp-content/uploads/HIS-OTH-CCH-History.pdf |website=etbf.eu |publisher=European Tenpin Bowling Federation |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326150845/http://etbf.eu/wp-content/uploads/HIS-OTH-CCH-History.pdf |archivedate=March 26, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
65. ^{{cite web |title=Weber Cup / About |url=http://www.webercup.com/about/ |website=WeberCup.com |accessdate=March 25, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221184533/http://www.webercup.com/about/ |archivedate=February 21, 2019 |deadurl=no}}
66. ^{{cite web |title=Weber Cup / History |url=http://www.webercup.com/history/ |website=WeberCup.com |accessdate=March 25, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221211921/http://www.webercup.com/history/ |archivedate=February 21, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
67. ^{{cite web |title=World Ranking Masters: A Historical Review |url=http://etbf.eu/his-ran-wrm-history/ |website=etbf.eu |publisher=European Tenpin Bowling Federation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325035249/http://etbf.eu/wp-content/uploads/HIS-RAN-WRM-History.pdf |archivedate=March 25, 2019 |accessdate=March 25, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
68. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling / List of Events |url=http://www.ocasia.org/Sports/SportsCategoryDetails?q=oZd2Xn4SipBpkydo46NvhccmPE0qYhXhoKuiOfA/0baqu1rYa2CQe6+dS9SAPIUS |website=ocasia.org |publisher=Olympic Council of Asia |accessdate=March 27, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327161211/http://www.ocasia.org/Sports/SportsCategoryDetails?q=oZd2Xn4SipBpkydo46NvhccmPE0qYhXhoKuiOfA/0baqu1rYa2CQe6+dS9SAPIUS |archivedate=March 27, 2019 |deadurl=no }}
69. ^{{cite web |title=Team USA Home / 2019 Pan American Games |url=https://www.bowl.com/2019PanAmericanGames/ |website=bowl.com |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |accessdate=March 27, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211548/https://www.bowl.com/2019PanAmericanGames/ |archivedate=September 19, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
70. ^{{cite web |title=Ten-Pin Bowling Regulations |url=https://www.maccabiah.com/2017/the-games/690-ten-pin-bowling |website=maccabiah.com |publisher=Maccabi World Union |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926063335/http://www.maccabiah.com/2017/the-games/690-ten-pin-bowling |archivedate=September 26, 2017 |date=July 28, 2016 |deadurl=no }}
71. ^¹²³⁴Data: Wayback Machine archives of USBC's bowl.com website. Links provided on [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1997-_USBC_membership_and_certified_lanes.png Wikimedia's image page] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20190129162217/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1997-_USBC_membership_and_certified_lanes.png 2019-01-29 archive thereof])
72. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling Leagues |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/bowling-leagues |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106213233/http://www.bowlingball.com/wordpress/bowling-leagues |archivedate=January 6, 2016 |date=August 3, 2012 |deadurl=no }}
73. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling League Schedule |url=http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rules/pdfs/Allleagueschedules.pdf |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224092117/http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rules/pdfs/Allleagueschedules.pdf |archivedate=December 24, 2015 |deadurl=no }} Sample schedules provided.
74. ^{{cite web |last1=Goodger |first1=Jef |title=Position Round in Bowling |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/position-round-in-bowling-420579 |website=ThoughtCo.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414141200/https://www.thoughtco.com/position-round-in-bowling-420579 |archivedate=April 14, 2018 |date=March 6, 2017 |deadurl=no }}
75. ^{{cite web |title=Sample Adult League Rules |url=http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rules/pdfs/LeagueRules-AdultLOH7-20-11.pdf |publisher=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528014735/http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/rules/pdfs/LeagueRules-AdultLOH7-20-11.pdf |archivedate=May 28, 2016 |location=Rule 16 (sample rule) |deadurl=no }}
76. ^¹{{cite news |last1=Small |first1=Glenn |title=Match point scoring can make league night more lively bowling |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-08-15-1993227145-story.html |work=The Baltimore Sun |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320043423/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-08-15-1993227145-story.html |archivedate=March 20, 2019 |date=August 15, 1993 |deadurl=no }}
77. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{cite web |last1=Crockett |first1=Zachary |title=The Rise and Fall of Professional Bowling |url=https://priceonomics.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-professional-bowling/ |publisher=Priceonomics |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316115254/https://priceonomics.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-professional-bowling/ |archivedate=March 16, 2018 |date=March 21, 2014 |deadurl=no}}
78. ^{{cite web |title=Hall of Fame / Earl Anthony |url=https://www.pba.com/bowlers/HallOfFame/34 |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 28, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205111655/http://pba.com/Bowlers/HallOfFame/34 |archivedate=February 5, 2010 |deadurl=no }}
79. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web |title=Resources / PBA History |url=https://www.pba.com/Resources/PbaHistory |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 28, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302043303/http://www.pba.com/Resources/PbaHistory |archivedate=March 2, 2016 |deadurl=no }}
80. ^{{cite web |title=Norm Duke |url=https://www.pba.com/bowlers/bowler/8678 |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 28, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526094545/http://www.pba.com/Bowlers/Bowler/8678 |archivedate=May 26, 2010 |deadurl=no }}
81. ^{{cite web |title=John Handegard |url=https://www.pba.com/bowlers/HallOfFame/391 |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 28, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807184208/http://www.pba.com/bowlers/HallOfFame/391 |archivedate=August 7, 2016 |deadurl=no }}
82. ^{{cite news |author1=Associated Press |title=Breaking More Barriers, Woman Takes P.B.A. Title |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/25/sports/25bowling.html |work=The New York Times |date=January 25, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128072311/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/25/sports/25bowling.html |archivedate=January 28, 2010 |deadurl=no}}
83. ^{{cite web |title=All-Time PBA Tour Titlists |url=https://www.pba.com/page/AllTimePBATourTitlists |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |accessdate=March 26, 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104145950/http://www.pba.com/page/AllTimePBATourTitlists |archivedate=November 4, 2016 |deadurl=no}}
84. ^{{cite web |last1=Thomas |first1=Jason |title=Shafer Leads U.S. Open, But 14-Year-Old Kamron Doyle Becomes Youngest Casher in PBA Tour History |url=http://content.pba.com/post/2012/02/23/Janawicz-Leads-US-Open-But-14-Year-Old-Doyle-Set-to-Become-Youngest-Casher-in-PBA-Tour-History.aspx |website=PBA.com |publisher=Professional Bowlers Association |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326042712/http://content.pba.com/post/2012/02/23/Janawicz-Leads-US-Open-But-14-Year-Old-Doyle-Set-to-Become-Youngest-Casher-in-PBA-Tour-History.aspx |archivedate=March 26, 2019 |date=February 23, 2012 |deadurl=no }}
85. ^¹{{cite web |title=Bowling Trivia 1 |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/info/trivia1.html |website=BowlingBall.com ("Info" section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050921063536/https://www.bowlingball.com/info/trivia1.html |archivedate=September 21, 2005 |date=2004 |deadurl=no }}
86. ^{{cite web |title=Elliot Crosby becomes the youngest player in the UK to shoot 300 |url=https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/418 |website=BowlingDigital.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230010636/https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/418 |archivedate=December 30, 2010 |date=January 15, 2006 |deadurl=no }}
87. ^{{cite web |last1=Cannizzaro |first1=Matt |title=Florida Bowler Becomes Youngest to Bowl 300 Game |url=https://bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622320597 |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress, USBC) |archiveurl=http://webcitation.org/75j3sqj9H |archivedate=January 27, 2019 |date=November 20, 2013 |deadurl=no }}
88. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling Trivia 2 |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/info/trivia2.html |website=BowlingBall.com ("Info" section) |archiveurl=http://webcitation.org/75ixL8Lhh |archivedate=January 26, 2019 |date=2004 |deadurl=no }}
89. ^{{cite web |last1=Bigham |first1=Terry |title=USBC Concludes Re-evaluation of Glenn Allison 900 Series |url=https://www.bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622323089 |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress, USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210132031/https://www.bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622323089 |archivedate=December 10, 2014 |date=November 22, 2014 |deadurl=no }}
90. ^{{cite web |author1=USBC Equipment Specifications and Certification section |title=Research complete on USBC Bowling Ball Motion Study |url=http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/equipandspecs/pdfs/articles/ResearchcompleteonUSBCBowlingBallMotionStudy.doc.pdf |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress, USBC) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207110243/http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/equipandspecs/pdfs/articles/ResearchcompleteonUSBCBowlingBallMotionStudy.doc.pdf |archivedate=December 7, 2010 |date=December 17, 2007 |deadurl=no }}
91. ^{{cite web |author1=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |title=Bowling Technology Study: An Examination and Discussion on Technology's Impact in the Sport of Bowling |url=https://bowlphilly.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/fullstudy.pdf |website=bowl.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231014131/https://bowlphilly.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/fullstudy.pdf |archivedate=December 31, 2018 |date=February 2018 |deadurl=no }}
92. ^{{cite web |last1=Siefers |first1=Nick (USBC research engineer) |title=Understanding the relationship between core and cover stock |url=https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/2324 |website=BowlingDigital.com (Courtesy of USBC Equipment Specification and Certification) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011257/https://www.bowlingdigital.com/bowl/node/2324 |archivedate=September 20, 2018 |date=April 23, 2007 |deadurl=no }}
93. ^¹²³{{cite web |last1=Carruba |first1=Rich |title=Are Today's Bowling Scores Too High? |url=https://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/are-todays-bowling-scores-too-high-editorial |website=BowlingBall.com (Bowlversity educational section) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610133401/http://www.bowlingball.com/BowlVersity/are-todays-bowling-scores-too-high-editorial |archivedate=June 10, 2012 |date=2012 |deadurl=no }}
94. ^{{cite web |last1=Bigham |first1=Terry |title=USBC to reclassify more than 700 leagues as Sport or Challenge leagues based on research |url=https://members.bowl.com/News/NewsDetails.aspx?id=23622330612 |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress, USBC) |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/75on4yTfa |archivedate=January 30, 2019 |date=January 15, 2018 |deadurl=no }}
95. ^{{cite web |author1=United States Bowling Congress (USBC) |title=Bowling Technology Study: An Examination and Discussion on Technology's Impact in the Sport of Bowling |url=https://bowlphilly.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/fullstudy.pdf |website=bowl.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231014131/https://bowlphilly.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/fullstudy.pdf |archivedate=December 31, 2018 |date=February 2018 |deadurl=no}}
96. ^¹²{{cite web |title=Bowling Technology Updates -- Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://usbcongress.http.internapcdn.net/usbcongress/bowl/equipandspecs/pdfs/TechnologyStudy/2018BTS-FAQ.pdf |website=bowl.com (United States Bowling Congress) |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/75pI046I9 |archivedate=January 31, 2019 |date=2018 |deadurl=no}} Archive link provides for download of PDF file rather than viewing.
97. ^{{Cite news|url=https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/professional-bowlers-fox-sports-espn-1202731225/|title=Professional Bowling Rolls to Fox Sports|last=Steinberg|first=Brian|date=2018-03-20|work=Variety|access-date=2018-03-22|language=en-US}}
98. ^{{cite web |title=Why the Media Hates Bowling |date=June 2, 2004 |author=Clark, Tom |publisher=Bowlers Journal |url=http://www.bowlersjournal.com/the_messenger/display_article?id=46 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050501154335/http://www.bowlersjournal.com/the_messenger/display_article?id=46 |archivedate=May 1, 2005 |deadurl=yes }}
99. ^¹{{cite news | title=Bowling's three hurdles to gain respect | date=October 30, 2001 | author=Clark, Tom | work=USA Today | url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/bowling/clark/2001-10-30-clark.htm | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712052009/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/bowling/clark/2001-10-30-clark.htm |archivedate=July 12, 2017 |deadurl=no }}
100. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling Through The Decades: The 1950s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades50s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410061542/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades50s.html |archivedate=April 10, 2016 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
101. ^{{cite web |title=Bowling Through The Decades: The 2000s |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades2000s.html |website=PBS.org (Independent Lens) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410050618/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/leagueofordinarygentlemen/decades2000s.html |archivedate=April 10, 2016 |date=2007 |deadurl=no }}
102. ^J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2004 paperback edition), p. 114.