| 词条 | Set (psychology) |
| 释义 |
In psychology, a set is a group of expectations that shape experience by making people especially sensitive to specific kinds of information. A perceptual set, also called perceptual expectancy, is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.[1] Perceptual sets occur in all the different senses.[2] They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one's own name in a crowded room, or short term, as in the ease with which hungry people notice the smell of food.[3] A mental set is a framework for thinking about a problem.[4] It can be shaped by habit or by desire.[4] Mental sets can make it easy to solve a class of problem, but attachment to the wrong mental set can inhibit problem-solving and creativity.[5][6] PerceptualPerception can be shaped by "top-down" processes such as drives and expectations. An effect of these factors is that people are particularly sensitive to perceive certain things, detecting them from weaker stimuli than otherwise.[7] A simple demonstration of the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words such as "sael". Subjects who were told to expect words about animals read it as "seal", but others who were expecting boat-related words read it as "sail".[3] Sets can be created by motivation and so can result in people interpreting ambiguous situations so that they see what they want to see.[7] For instance, a person's experience of the events in a sports match can be biased if they strongly support one of the teams.[8] In one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that either a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or an unpleasant-tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were associated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.[1] Perceptual sets have been demonstrated in many social contexts. People who are primed to think of someone as "warm" are more likely to perceive a variety of positive characteristics in them, than if the word "warm" is replaced by "cold". When someone has a reputation for being funny, an audience are more likely to find them amusing.[3] Individual's perceptual sets reflect their own personality traits. For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify aggressive words or situations.[3] MentalMental sets are subconscious tendencies to approach a problem in a particular way,[6] either helping or interfering in the discovery of a solution.[6] They are shaped by past experiences, habits,[17] and, most importantly, culture.[9] These sets also exist as parts of our cognitive processes although they do not always enter consciousness.[6] This is demonstrated in the way a bookkeeper can balance a book without being aware that he is already engaged in addition or subtraction.[10] An inappropriate mental set hampers the solution of straightforward problems.[3] This could happen if the set contains a false assumption or a belief that is not correct.[6] For example, when people are asked, "When a United States plane carrying Canadian passengers crashes in international waters, where should the survivors be buried?" the phrasing of the question suggests that it is a problem of international law. People who interpret the statement with this mental set will miss the fact that survivors would not need to be buried.[6] A specific form of mental set is functional fixedness, in which someone fails to see the variety of uses to which an object can be put.[3][6][11] An example would be someone who needs a weight but fails to use an easily available hammer because their mental set is to think of a hammer as for a specific purpose.[6] See also
Notes1. ^1 {{cite book|last=Weiten|first=Wayne|title=Psychology: Themes and Variations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sILajOhJpOsC&pg=PT193|accessdate=24 March 2011|date=17 December 2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-60197-5|page=193}} 2. ^{{cite book|last=Sonderegger|first=Theo|title=Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUrCHiSb_QsC&pg=PA43|accessdate=24 March 2011|date=16 October 1998|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-8220-5327-9|pages=43–44}} 3. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Malcolm|last2=Heyes|first2=Steve|title=Beginning Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjPWqXi9WQsC&pg=PA24|accessdate=24 March 2011|date=2 December 1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-832821-6|pages=24–27}} 4. ^{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Ram Nath|last2=Chandra|first2=S.S.|title=General Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ0om-uxWpcC&pg=PA253|accessdate=25 March 2011|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0303-0|page=157}} 5. ^1 {{cite book|last=Galotti|first=Kathleen M.|title=Cognitive Psychology: In and Out of the Laboratory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezZWTurJuH0C&pg=PA341|accessdate=25 March 2011|date=5 February 2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-644065-7|pages=341–344}} 6. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 {{cite book|last=Bruno|first=Frank Joe|title=Psychology: a self-teaching guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3NxvYRL-fgC&pg=PA127|accessdate=25 March 2011|date=2 August 2002|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-471-44395-7|pages=127–128}} 7. ^1 {{cite book|last1=Coon|first1=Dennis|last2=Mitterer|first2=John O.|title=Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C&pg=PA171|accessdate=24 March 2011|date=29 December 2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-59911-1|pages=171–172}} 8. ^{{cite book|last1=Block|first1=J. R.|last2=Yuker|first2=Harold E.|title=Can You Believe Your Eyes?: Over 250 Illusions and Other Visual Oddities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNMFiMQu8BMC&pg=PA173|accessdate=24 March 2011|date=1 October 2002|publisher=Robson|isbn=978-1-86105-586-6|pages=173–174}} 9. ^{{Cite book|title=Towards the Pragmatic Core of English for European Communication: The Speech Act of Apologising in Selected Euro-Englishes|last=Klimczak-Pawlak|first=Agata|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=9783319035567|location=Cham|pages=49}} 10. ^{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology, Sixth Edition|last=Hergenhahn|first=B.R.|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|year=2009|isbn=9780495506218|location=Belmont, CA|pages=284}} 11. ^1 {{cite book|last=Mangal|first=S. K.|title=Essentials of educational psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyYPIr120ZcC&pg=PA393|accessdate=25 March 2011|date=1 August 2007|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-3055-9|pages=393–394}} Further reading
2 : Experimental psychology|Perception |
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