| 词条 | The Exodus |
| 释义 |
The Exodus is the founding myth of the Israelites.{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}}{{efn|The name "exodus" is from Greek ἔξοδος exodos, "going out". For "myth" see Sparks, 2010, p. 73: "Charter (i.e., foundation) myths tell the story of a society's origins, and, in doing so, provide the ideological foundations for the culture and its institutions."{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}}}} Spread over the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, it tells of the enslavement that befell the children of Israel in Egypt, their liberation through the hand of Yahweh and the revelations at Sinai, and their wanderings in the wilderness up to borders of Canaan, the land their God has given them.{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=59}} Its message is that Israel was delivered from slavery by Yahweh and therefore belongs to him through the Mosaic covenant, the terms of which are that Yahweh will protect his chosen people for all time, so long as they will keep his laws and worship only him.{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}}{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=28-29}} The narrative and its laws remain central to Judaism, recounted daily in Jewish prayers and celebrated in festivals such as Passover, as well as serving as an inspiration and model for non-Jewish groups from early Protestants fleeing persecution in Europe to African-Americans striving for freedom and civil rights.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=107}} Scholars are broadly agreed that the Exodus story was composed in the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}} The traditions behind it can be traced in the writings of the 8th-century BCE prophets,{{sfn|Lemche|1985|p=327}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=63}} but it has no historical basis.{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=81}} Instead, archaeology suggests a native Canaanite origin for ancient Israel.{{sfn|Meyers|2005|pp=6–7}} SummaryNarrativeThe story of the Exodus is told in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, the last four of the five books of the Torah (also called the Pentateuch). It begins with the Israelites in slavery. Their prophet Moses leads them out of Egypt and through the wilderness to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh reveals himself to his people and establishes the Mosaic covenant: they are to keep his torah (i.e. law, instruction), and in return he will give them the land of Canaan. The Israelites accept the covenant and receive their laws, and, with Yahweh now present in their midst, journey on from Sinai, towards the promised land, but when told that the land is filled with giants they refuse to go on, and Yahweh condemns them to remain in the desert until the generation that left Egypt passes away. After thirty-eight years at the oasis of Kadesh Barnea the next generation travel on to the borders of Canaan, where Moses addresses them for the final time, reviewing their travels and giving them further laws. The Exodus ends with the death of Moses on Mount Nebo and his burial by Yahweh, while the Israelites prepare for the conquest of the land.{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=59-60}} Covenant and lawThe climax of the Exodus is the covenant (binding legal agreement) between God and Israel mediated by Moses at Sinai: Yahweh will protect Israel as his chosen people for all time, and Israel will keep Yahweh's laws and worship only him.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=28-29}} The covenant is described in stages: at Exodus 24:3–8 the Israelites agree to abide by the "book of the covenant" that Moses has just read to them; shortly afterwards God writes the "words of the covenant" – the Ten Commandments – on stone tablets; and finally, as the people gather in Moab to cross into Canaan, the land God has promised them, Moses makes a new covenant between Yahweh and Israel "beside the covenant he made with them at Horeb" (Deuteronomy 29:1).{{sfn|McKenzie|2000|p=4-5}} The laws are set out in a number of codes:{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=146}}
CompositionScholars are broadly agreed that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE), echoing a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}} The first trace of the traditions behind it appears in the northern prophets Amos (possibly) and Hosea (certainly), both active in the 8th century BCE in northern Israel, but their southern contemporaries Isaiah and Micah show no knowledge of an exodus.{{sfn|Lemche|1985|p=327}} (Micah 6:45 contains a reference to the exodus, which many scholars take to be an addition by a later editor.){{efn|Micah 6:45 ("I brought you up out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery; I sent Moses to lead you, also Aaron and Miriam. My people, remember what Balak king of Moab plotted and what Balaam son of Beor answered. Remember your journey from Shittim to Gilgal, that you may know the righteous acts of the Lord”) is a late addition to the original book. See {{sfn|Lemche|1985|p=315}}, {{cite book|first=Robert D.|last=Miller II|title=Illuminating Moses: A History of Reception from Exodus to the Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXZfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|date=25 November 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25854-9|page=19}}, {{cite book|first=John J.|last=McDermott|title=Reading the Pentateuch: A Historical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dkr7rVd3hAQC&pg=PA90|year=2002|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4082-4|page=90}}, {{cite book|first=Steven L.|last=McKenzie|title=How to Read the Bible: History, Prophecy, Literature--Why Modern Readers Need to Know the Difference and What It Means for Faith Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYfweIriBSsC&pg=PA78|date=15 September 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803655-5|page=78}}, {{cite book|first=John J.|last=Collins|title=Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju49DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354|date=15 April 2018|publisher=Augsburg Fortress, Publishers|isbn=978-1-5064-4605-9|page=354|quote=Many scholars assume that the appeal to the exodus here is the work of a Deuteronomistic editor, but this is not necessarily so.}} and {{cite book|first=Hans Walter|last=Wolff|title=Micah: A Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-nlsvSZomcC|year=1990|publisher=Augsburg|isbn=978-0-8066-2449-5|page=23}} apud {{cite book|first=Graham R.|last=Hamborg|title=Still Selling the Righteous: A Redaction-critical Investigation of Reasons for Judgment in Amos 2.6-16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86OoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|date=24 May 2012|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-567-04860-8|pages=156–157}}}} The story may, therefore, have originated a few centuries earlier, perhaps the 9th or 10th BCE, and there are signs that it took different forms in Israel, in the Transjordan region, and in the southern Kingdom of Judah before being unified in the Persian era.{{sfn|Russell|2009|p=1}} Many theories have been advanced to explain the composition of the Torah, but two have been especially influential.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=217}} The first of these, Persian Imperial authorisation, advanced by Peter Frei in 1985, holds that the Persian authorities required the Jews of Jerusalem to present a single body of law as the price of local autonomy.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=218}} Frei's theory was demolished at an interdisciplinary symposium held in 2000, but the relationship between the Persian authorities and Jerusalem remains a crucial question.{{sfn|Eskenazi|2009|p=86}} The second theory, associated with Joel P. Weinberg and called the "Citizen-Temple Community", proposes that the Exodus story was composed to serve the needs of a post-exilic Jewish community organised around the Temple, which acted in effect as a bank for those who belonged to it.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=226–227}} The Torah (the Exodus story) served as an "identity card" defining who belonged to this community (i.e., to Israel), thus reinforcing Israel's unity through its new institutions.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=225}} Cultural significanceThe Exodus is at the centre of Jewish identity.{{sfn|Barmash|2015a|p=vii}} It is remembered daily in Jewish prayers and celebrated each year at the feasts of Pesach (Passover) and Shavuot, the two being known respectively as "the time of our freedom" and "the time our Torah was given".{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} The two are closely linked, with Pesach announcing that the freedom it introduces is only fully realised with the giving of the law (the Torah).{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} A third Jewish festival, Sukkot, the Festival of Booths, commemorates how the Israelites lived in booths following the exodus from their previous homes in Egypt.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} The Exodus roots Jewish religion in history, in contrast to pagan religions which are oriented towards nature.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} The festivals now associated with the exodus (Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot) began as agricultural and seasonal feasts but became completely subsumed into the central Exodus myth of Israel's deliverance from oppression at the hands of God.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} The idea that the relationship between God and Israel is defined by the covenant ("brit") made at Sinai is central to Jewish identity, together with the laws given to Israel and the thirteen attributes of God revealed there.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=106}} The fringes worn at the corners of traditional Jewish prayer shawls are a physical reminder of the obligation to observe the laws given at the climax of Exodus: "Look at it and recall all the commandments of the Lord" (Numbers).{{sfn|Sarason|2015|p=53}} The Exodus has also resonated through non-Jewish culture. Some influences have been trivial but curiously significant – medieval Irish and Scottish legendary history, for example, derived the name of Scotland from Scota, supposedly a daughter of the pharaoh of the Exodus who later emigrated to the British isles.{{sfn|Assmann|2018|p=335}} Others have been more significant: the hostility of the exodus tradition to the State (specifically to Egypt and the pharaoh) played a role in the Puritan Revolution in 17th-century England, many early American settlers interpreted their flight from religious persecution in Europe to a new life overseas as a type of exodus, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin recommended that the Great Seal of the United States show Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea, and African Americans suffering under slavery and racial oppression interpreted their situation in terms of the Exodus, making it a catalyst for social change.{{sfn|Tigay|2004|p=107}}{{sfn|Assmann|2018|p=335}}{{sfn|Coomber|2012|p=123}} Mormon pioneers to Utah compared their journey to the biblical Exodus and adopted many place names.{{sfn|Peterson|2014}} The Exodus as myth and historyThere is an almost universal consensus among scholars that the Exodus story is best understood as myth;{{sfn|Collins|2005|p=46}} more specifically, it is a "charter" (or foundation) myth, a story told to explain a society's origins and to provide the ideological foundation for its culture and institutions.{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}} While a few scholars continue to discuss the potential historicity or plausibility of the Exodus story, for historians of ancient Israel it is no longer seen as viable and archaeologists have abandoned it as "a fruitless pursuit" (Dever, 2001).{{sfn|Dever|2001|p=99}}{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=89}} There is no indication that the Israelites ever lived in Ancient Egypt, and the Sinai Peninsula shows almost no sign of any occupation for the entire 2nd millennium BCE (even Kadesh-Barnea, where the Israelites are said to have spent 38 years, was uninhabited prior to the establishment of the Israelite monarchy).{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=77}} In contrast to the absence of evidence for the Egyptian captivity and wilderness wanderings, there are ample signs of Israel's evolution within Canaan from native Canaanite roots.{{sfn|Barmash|2015b|p=4}}{{sfn|Shaw|2002|p=313}} Details point to a 1st millennium BCE date for the composition of the narrative: Ezion-Geber (one of the Stations of the Exodus), for example, dates to a period between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE with possible further occupation into the 4th century BCE,{{sfn|Pratico|DiVito|1993|pp=1–32}} and those place-names on the Exodus route that have been identified – Goshen, Pithom, Succoth, Ramesses and Kadesh Barnea – point to the geography of the 1st millennium BCE rather than the 2nd.{{sfn|Van Seters|1997|pp=255ff}} Similarly, Pharaoh's fear that the Israelites might ally themselves with foreign invaders seems unlikely in the context of the late 2nd millennium, when Canaan was part of the New Kingdom empire and Egypt faced no enemies in that direction, but does make sense in a 1st millennium BCE context, when Egypt was considerably weaker and faced invasion first from the Achaemenid Empire and later from the Seleucid Empire.{{sfn|Soggin|1998|pp=128–29}} The mention of the dromedary in Exodus 9:3 also suggests a later date – the widespread domestication of the camel as a herd animal is thought not to have taken place before the late 2nd millennium BCE, after the Israelites had already emerged in Canaan,{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=334}} and they did not become widespread in Egypt until c. 200–100 BCE.{{sfn|Faye|2013|p=3}} Even the chronology of the Exodus narrative is symbolic: for example, its culminating event, the erection of the Tabernacle as Yahweh's dwelling-place among his people, occurs in the year 2666 Anno Mundi (Year of the World, meaning 2666 years after God creates the world), and two-thirds of the way through a four thousand year era that culminates in or around the re-dedication of the Second Temple in 164 BCE.{{sfn|Hayes|Miller|1986|p=59}}{{sfn|Davies|1998|p=180}} While the consensus of modern scholars is that the Bible does not give an accurate account of the origins of Israel and the Exodus story is no older than the Babylonian exile, there are indications of some historical memories: the name of Moses is Egyptian, and the history of the Hyksos, who were Canaanite rulers of the Egyptian Delta in the 16th century BCE, may have formed the basis of the descent into Egypt and the exodus.{{sfn|Davies|2015|p=51}}{{sfn|Collins|2005|p=45-46}}{{sfn|Collins|2014|p=113}} Egyptologist Jan Assmann suggests that it has no single origin, but rather combines numerous historical experiences into "a coherent story that is fictional as to its composition but historical as to some of its components" (Assmann, 2014).{{sfn|Assmann|2014|p=unpaginated}} Thus the memory of Egyptian oppression may be based on the harsh treatment of Canaanites inside Canaan in the 2nd millennium, when the region was ruled by Egypt; these memories could later have been transferred to Egypt itself, and an exodus story created.{{sfn|Anderson|Gooder|2017|p=unpaginated}} See also{{Portal|Bible|Judaism}}
Notes{{Notelist}}ReferencesCitationsBibliography{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}{{cite book | last1 = Anderson | first1 = Bradford A. | last2 = Gooder | first2 = Paula | title = An Introduction to the Study of the Pentateuch | year = 2017 | publisher = Bloomsbury | url = https://books.google.com/?id=ebXFDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT135&dq=%22how+then+to+explain+the+emergence+of+the+exodus+tradition#v=onepage&q=%22how%20then%20to%20explain%20the%20emergence%20of%20the%20exodus%20tradition%3F%22&f=false | isbn = 9780567656407 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Assmann | first = Jan | title = The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus | publisher = Princeton University Press | url = https://books.google.com/?id=K7s7DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | year = 2018 | ref = harv | isbn = 9781400889235 }} {{cite book | last = Assmann | first = Jan | title = Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt | publisher = Harvard University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IjUiie30Z9cC&pg=PA34 | year = 2009 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780674020306 }} {{cite book |first=Jan |last=Assmann |title=From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsjmCwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-977-416-631-0 |ref=harv }} {{cite book | last = Bandstra | first = Barry L. | title = Reading the Old Testament: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible | year = 2008 | publisher = Cengage Learning | url = https://books.google.com/?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | ref = harv | isbn = 0495391050 }} {{cite book | last = Barmash | first = Pamela | chapter = Introduction: The Exodus: Central, Learning, and Generative | editor1-last = Barmash | editor1-first = Pamela | editor2-last = Nelson | editor2-first = W. David | title = Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations | year = 2015a | publisher = Lexington Books | chapterurl = https://books.google.com/books/about/Exodus_in_the_Jewish_Experience.html?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 | isbn = 9781498502931 | pages = vii–xiv | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Barmash | first = Pamela | chapter = Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible | editor1-last = Barmash | editor1-first = Pamela | editor2-last = Nelson | editor2-first = W. David | title = Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations | year = 2015b | publisher = Lexington Books | chapterurl = https://books.google.com/books/about/Exodus_in_the_Jewish_Experience.html?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | isbn = 9781498502931 | pages = 1–22 | ref = harv }} {{cite journal | last1 = Beitzel | first1 = Barry | date = Spring 1980 | title = Exodus 3:14 and the Divine Name: A Case of Biblical Paronomasia | journal = Trinity Journal | volume = 1 | pages = 5–20 | publisher = Trinity Divinity School | url = https://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/ted_hildebrandt/otesources/02-exodus/text/articles/beitzel-ex314-name-tj.pdf | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Butzer | first = Karl W. | editor1-last = Bard | editor1-first = Kathryn A. | editor2-last = Shubert | editor2-first = Steven | title = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt | chapter = Demographics | year = 1999 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 0-907459-04-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XNdgScxtirYC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Callender | first = Gae | date = 2003 | chapter = The Middle Kingdom Renaissance | title = The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt | editor = Ian Shaw | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-280458-7 | ref=harv }} {{cite book | last1 = Carr | first1 = David M. | last2 = Conway | first2 = Colleen M. | title = An Introduction to the Bible: Sacred Texts and Imperial Contexts | chapter = Introduction to the Pentateuch | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dJerjvlxCHsC | year = 2010 | ref = harv | isbn = 9781405167383 {{cite book | last = Cline | first = Eric H. | title = From Eden to Exile | year = 2007 | publisher = National Geographic Society | isbn = 9781426200847 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bJW-zhffwk4C&pg=PA74 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Collins | first = John J. | title = Introduction to the Hebrew Bible | year = 2014 | publisher = Augsburg Fortress Publishers | isbn = 9781451469233 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=fbsoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109&dq=%22the+exodus+is+the+most+celebrated+event+in+the+entire+hebrew+bible%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20exodus%20is%20the%20most%20celebrated%20event%20in%20the%20entire%20hebrew%20bible%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Collins | first = John J. | title = The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age | year = 2005 | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = 9780802828927 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=yqClWOhqso0C&pg=PA45&dq=%22collective+memory%22#v=onepage&q=%22collective%20memory%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Collins | first = John J. | chapter = Israel | editor1-last = Johnston | editor1-first = Sarah Iles | title = Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide | year = 2004 | publisher = Harvard University Press | url = https://books.google.com/?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA182&dq=%22The+early+Israelites+evolved+within+the+land%22%22of+canaan%22#v=onepage&q=%22The%20early%20Israelites%20evolved%20within%20the%20land%22%22of%20canaan%22&f=false | isbn = 978-0-674-01517-3 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Coomber | first = Matthew J.M. | chapter = Before Crossing the Jordan | editor1-last = Brenner | editor1-first = Athalya | editor2-last = Yee | editor2-first = Gale A. | title = Exodus and Deuteronomy | year = 2012 | publisher = Fortress Press | url = https://books.google.com/?id=4ouHdse1m5IC&pg=PA123&dq=%22the+story+of+the+Hebrew+exodus+played+a+significant+role+in+African+American+history%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20story%20of%20the%20Hebrew%20exodus%20played%20a%20significant%20role%20in%20African%20American%20history%22&f=false | ref = harv | isbn = 9781451408195 }} {{cite book |last1=David |first1=Rosalie |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195132151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RulD63Y3BlAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=18 September 2017 |ref=harv }} {{cite journal |last= Davies |first= Eryl |date= 1995 |title= A Mathematical Conundrum: The Problem of Large Numbers in Numbers I and XXVI |jstor= 1535243 |journal= Vetus Testamentum |volume= 45 |issue= 4 |pages= 449–69}} {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Graham | editor-last = Barton | editor-first = John | title = Oxford Bible Commentary | chapter = Introduction to the Pentateuch | publisher = Oxford University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wCRYl9Ikk6EC&pg=PA37 | year = 2001 | page = 37 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780198755005 }} {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Graham | editor1-last = Day | editor1-first = John | title = In Search of Pre-exilic Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar | chapter = Was There an Exodus? | year = 2004 | publisher = Continuum | isbn = 9780567082060 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&pg=PA23 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Philip R. | title = In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins | year = 2015 | publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing | isbn = 9780567662996 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=HJIzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51&dq=%22an+accurate+account+of+the+emergence+of+Israel%22#v=onepage&q=%22an%20accurate%20account%20of%20the%20emergence%20of%20Israel%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Philip R. | title = Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures | year = 1998 | publisher = Westminster John Knox | isbn = 9780664227289 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wjcOaNfz-HIC&pg=PA180 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Dever | first = William | title = What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? | year = 2001 | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = 3927120375 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Dever | first = William | title = Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? | year = 2003 | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = 3927120375 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A_ByXkpofAgC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Dozeman | first = Thomas B. | title = Exodus | year = 2009 | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = | url = https://books.google.com/?id=fRXjfa6RWPwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Droge | first = Arthur J. | title = Josephus' Contra Apion | chapter = Josephus Between Greeks and Barbarians | editor1-last = Feldman | editor1-first = L.H. | editor2-last = Levison | editor2-first = J.R. | year = 1996 | publisher = Brill | isbn = 9004103252 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MpZwfMmH0n8C&pg=PR3 | ref = harv }} {{cite book |last = Enmarch |first = Roland |chapter = The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All |editor1-last = Collier |editor1-first = M. |editor2-last = Snape |editor2-first = S. |title = Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen |publisher = Rutherford |year = 2011 |url = http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf |ref = harv |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717130933/http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf |archivedate = 2011-07-17 |df = }} {{cite book | last = Enns | first = Peter | title = The Evolution of Adam | year = 2012 | publisher = Baker Books | isbn = 9781587433153 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BNxeoqoTg-YC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Eskenazi | first = Tamara Cohn | editor1-last = Grabbe | editor1-first = Lester L. | editor2-last = Knoppers | editor2-first = Gary N. | title = Exile and Restoration Revisited: Essays on the Babylonian and Persian Periods | chapter = From Exile and Restoration to Exile and Reconstruction | year = 2009 | publisher = Bloomsbury | url = https://books.google.com/?id=E-XeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=%22Frei%27s+influential+theory+has+been+essentially+and+effectively+deconstructed%22#v=onepage&q=%22Frei%27s%20influential%20theory%20has%20been%20essentially%20and%20effectively%20deconstructed%22&f=false | ref = harv | isbn = 9780567465672 }} {{cite book |last1=Faust |first1=Avraham |chapter=The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H.C. Propp |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/37280091/Faust-2015-in_Exodus_Volume-Question_Origin.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1505714686&Signature=7isIz0TGVncjj7ryCN8MWEoqECM%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFaust_A._2015_The_Emergence_of_Iron_Age.pdf |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 |ref=harv }} {{cite book | last = Faye | first = Bernard | chapter = Classification, History and Distribution of the Camel | editor1-last = Kadim | editor1-first = Isam T. | editor2-last = Mahgoub | editor2-first = Osman | editor3-last = Faye | editor3-first = Bernard | title = Camel Meat and Meat Products | year = 2013 | publisher = CABI | isbn = 9781780641010 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9ed1bquVydsC&pg=PA1 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Feldman | first = Louis H. | title = Josephus's Interpretation of the Bible | year = 1998 | publisher = University of California Press | isbn = 9780520208537 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S349d-yRgCIC&pg=PA342 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = Israel | last2 = Silberman | first2 = Neil Asher | title = The Bible Unearthed | year = 2002 | publisher = Free Press | isbn = 0684869128 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC | ref = harv }} {{cite book |last1=Geraty |first1=L. T. |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H.C. Propp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |date=28 March 2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 |ref=harv }} {{cite book | last = Gmirkin | first = Russell E. | title = Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and The Date of the Pentateuch | year = 2006 | publisher = T & T Clark International | isbn = 9780567025920 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=noKI6AsqnhMC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Grabbe | first = Lester | editor1-last = Dozeman | editor1-first = Thomas | editor2-last = Evans | editor2-first = Craig A. | editor3-last = Lohr | editor3-first = Joel N. | title = The Book of Exodus: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation | chapter = Exodus and History | year = 2014 | publisher = BRILL | isbn = 9789004282667 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=TmGeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61&dq=%22primarily+Amos+and+Hosea%22%22middle+of+the+eighth+century%22#v=onepage&q=%22primarily%20Amos%20and%20Hosea%22%22middle%20of%20the%20eighth%20century%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Grisanti | first = Michael A. | title = The World and the Word | chapter = The Book of Numbers | editor1-last = Merrill | editor1-first = Eugene H. | editor2-last = Rooker | editor2-first = Mark | editor3-last = Grisanti | editor3-first = Michael A. | year = 2011 | publisher = B&H Publishing | isbn = 9781433673740 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=9iq5AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240&dq=%22census+numbers+seem+to+be+impossible+and+un-historical%22#v=onepage&q=%22census%20numbers%20seem%20to%20be%20impossible%20and%20un-historical%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite journal|last1=Guillaume |first1=Philippe |year= |title=Tracing the Origin of the Sabbatical Calendar in the Priestly Narrative, Genesis 1 to Joshua 5 |journal=Journal of Hebrew Scriptures |volume=5 |issue=13 |date=Spring 1980 |pages= |publisher= |url=http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_43.pdf |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211035026/http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_43.pdf |archivedate=December 11, 2005 }} {{cite book | last1 = Hayes | first1 = John Haralson | last2 = Miller | first2 = James Maxwell | title = A History of Ancient Israel and Judah | year = 1986 | publisher = Westminster John Knox | isbn = 9780664212629 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&pg=PA59 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Hoffmeier | first = James K. | title = Israel in Egypt | year = 1999 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780195130881 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CT_lHTEcL6gC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Hoffmeier | first = James K. | title = Ancient Israel in Sinai | year = 2005 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780195155464 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SMZnDgFxiTUC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Killebrew | first = Anne E. | title = Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity | year = 2005 | publisher = Society of Biblical Literature | isbn = 9781589830974 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC&pg=PR11 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Kitchen | first = Kenneth | editor1-last = Rogerson | editor1-first = John William | editor2-last = Lieu | editor2-first = Judith | title = The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies | chapter = Egyptology and the traditions of early Hebrew antiquity (Genesis and Exodus) | year = 2006 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780199254255 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HMkMeaijNT4C&pg=PA90 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Kitchen | first = Kenneth A | title = On the Reliability of the Old Testament | year = 2006b | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = 9780802803962 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Knight | first = Douglas A. | title = Old Testament Interpretation | chapter = Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomist | editor1-last = Mays | editor1-first = James Luther | editor2-last = Petersen | editor2-first = David L. | editor3-last = Richards | editor3-first = Kent Harold | year = 1995 | publisher = T&T Clark | isbn = 9780567292896 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SNLN1nEEys0C | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Lemche | first = Niels Peter | title = Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical studies | year = 1985 | publisher = Brill | isbn = 9004078533 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=crA3AAAAIAAJ | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Levinson | first = Bernard Malcolm | title = Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation | year = 1997 | publisher = OUP | isbn = 9780195354577 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=U-GJFShHwzsC&pg=PA58 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Lichtheim | first = Miriam | title = Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms | volume = 1 | year = 2006 | publisher = University of California Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YYwl40XfPhwC&pg=PA134 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780520248427 }} {{cite book | last = McEntire | first = Mark | title = Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch | year = 2008 | publisher = Mercer University Press | isbn = 9780881461015 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = McKenzie | first = Steven L. | title = Covenant | year = 2000 | publisher = Chalice Press | url = https://books.google.com/?id=wjATdNF3KC4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last1 = Merrill | first1 = Eugene H. | last2 = Rooker | first2 = Michael A. | last3 = Grisanti | first3 = Mark F. | title = The World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament | publisher = B&H Publishing Group | url = https://books.google.com/?id=SMJF-3jBfg4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | year = 2011 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780805440317 }} {{cite book | last = Meyers | first = Carol | title = Exodus | year = 2005 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780521002912 }} {{cite book |last1 = Moore |first1 = Megan Bishop |last2 = Kelle |first2 = Brad E. |title = Biblical History and Israel's Past |year = 2011 |publisher = Eerdmans |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81 |ref = harv |isbn = 9780802862600 }} {{cite book | last1 = Miller | first1 = William T. | title = The Book of Exodus: Question by Question | publisher = Paulist Press | url = https://books.google.com/?id=cFwyHDXVSvcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Book+of+Exodus:+Question+by+Question#v=onepage&q=The%20Book%20of%20Exodus%3A%20Question%20by%20Question&f=false | year = 2009 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780809146123 }} {{cite book | last = Noll | first = K.L. | title = Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction | year = 2001 | publisher = Sheffield Academic Press | isbn = 9781841273181 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2rnyjxLHy-QC&pg=PA15 | ref = harv }} {{cite book|first=Michael D.|last=Oblath|title=The Exodus Itinerary Sites: Their Locations from the Perspective of the Biblical Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5ya9QVCpIkC&pg=PA21|year=2004|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-6716-0|page=21|ref=harv}} {{cite book | last = Perdue | first = Leo G. | title = The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age of Empires | publisher = Eerdmans | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xJEuthTCjSgC&pg=PA22 | year = 2008 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780802862457 }} {{cite book|ref=harv|first1=Gary Davis |last1= Pratico|first2=Robert A. |last2= DiVito|title=Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh: A Reappraisal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvBtAAAAMAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Scholars Press|isbn=978-1-55540-883-1}} {{citation |title = Remembering the Exodus — both ancient and modern |first = Daniel |last = Peterson |date = July 24, 2014 |newspaper = Deseret News |url = https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865607432/Remembering-the-Exodus-2-both-ancient-and-modern.html |ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Prosic | first = Tamara | title = The Development and Symbolism of Passover | year = 2004 | publisher = A&C Black | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=BVCvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 | ref = harv | isbn = 9780567287892 }} {{cite book |last = Redford |first=Donald B. |title=Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9teGQgAACAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-03606-9 |ref=harv }} {{cite book | last = Redmount | first = Carol A. | title = The Oxford History of the Biblical World | chapter = Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt | editor-last = Coogan | editor-first = Michael D. | year = 2001 | orig-year = 1998 | publisher = OUP | isbn = 9780199881482 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59&dq=%22The+exodus+saga+in+the+bible%22#v=onepage&q=%22The%20exodus%20saga%20in%20the%20bible%22&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last1 = Rofé | first1 = Alexander | title = Deuteronomy: Issues and Interpretation | year = 2002 | publisher = T&T Clark | isbn = 9780567087546 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ATDWInu5VCwC&pg=PR7 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Rogerson | first = John W. | title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible | chapter = Deuteronomy | editor-last = Dunn | editor-first = James D. G. | year = 2003 | publisher = Eerdmans | isbn = 9780802837110 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153 | ref = harv }} {{cite journal | last1 = Romer | first1 = Thomas | date = 2008 | title = Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity | journal = The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures | volume = 8, article 15 | pages = 2–12 | publisher = JHS online | url = http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Russell | first = Stephen C. | title = Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature | year = 2009 | publisher = Walter de Gruyter | isbn = 9783110221718 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last1=Ryholt | first1=K. S. B. | last2=Bülow-Jacobsen | first2=Adam | title=The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANRi7cM5ZwsC | year=1997 | publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press | isbn=978-87-7289-421-8 | ref=harv }} {{cite book | last = Sarason | first = Richard S. | chapter = The Past as Paradigm:Enactments of the Exodus Motif in Jewish Liturgy | editor1-last = Barmash | editor1-first = Pamela | editor2-last = Nelson | editor2-first = W. David | title = Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations | year = 2015 | publisher = Lexington | url = https://books.google.com/?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enactments+of+the+Exodus+Motif+in+Jewish+Liturgy%22#v=onepage&q=%22Enactments%20of%20the%20Exodus%20Motif%20in%20Jewish%20Liturgy%22&f=false | isbn = 9781498502931 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last1 = Shaw | first1 = Ian | editor1-last = Shaw | editor1-first = Ian | editor2-last = Jameson | editor2-first = Robert | title = A Dictionary of Archaeology | chapter = Israel, Israelites | year = 2002 | publisher = Wiley Blackwell | isbn =9780631235835 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Shea | first = William H. | editor1-last = Grisanti | editor1-first = Michael A. | editor2-last = Howard | editor2-first = David M. | title = Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts | chapter = The Date of the Exodus | year = 2003 | publisher = Kregel Academic | isbn = 9780825428920 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=stMd0QV97IYC&pg=PA236 |ref =harv }} {{cite book | last = Ska | first = Jean Louis | title = Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch | chapter = | year = 2006 | publisher = Eisenbrauns | isbn = 9781575061221 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7cdy67ZvzdkC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Soggin | first = John | title = An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah (tr. 1999) | year = 1998 | publisher = SCM Press | isbn = 9780334027881 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Sparks | first = Kenton L. | editor1-last = Dozeman | editor1-first = Thomas B. | title = Methods for Exodus | chapter = Genre Criticism | year = 2010 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 9781139487382 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73 |ref =harv }} {{cite book | last = Sparks | first = B.C. | chapter = Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus | editor1-last = Levy | editor1-first = Thomas E. | editor2-last = Schneider | editor2-first = Thomas | editor3-last = Propp | editor3-first = William H.C. | title = Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience | year = 2015 | publisher = Springer | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 |ref =harv | isbn = 9783319047683 }} {{cite book | last = Stiebing | first = William H. | title = Out of the Desert: Archaeology and the Exodus/Conquest Narratives | year = 1989 | publisher = Prometheus | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf2NWgNhEecC | ref = harv | isbn = 9781615926886 }} {{cite book | last = Thompson | first = Thomas L. | title = The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology And The Myth Of Israel | year = 1999 | publisher = Basic Books | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QzOJ9nMlUJcC&pg=PA73 | ref = harv | isbn = 0465010520 }} {{cite book | last = Tigay | first = Jeffrey H. | editor1-last = Berlin | editor1-first = Adele | editor2-last = Brettler | editor2-first = Marc Zvi | title = The Jewish Study Bible | chapter = Exodus | year = 2004 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780195297515 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC |ref =harv }} {{cite book | last = Van Seters | first = John | title = The Land that I Will Show You | chapter = The Geography of the Exodus | editor1-last = Silberman | editor1-first = Neil Ash | year = 1997a | publisher = Sheffield Academic Press | isbn = 9781850756507 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YzQe_4Waz34C | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Van Seters | first = John | title = In Search of History: Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History | year = 1997b | publisher = Eisenbrauns | isbn = | url = https://books.google.com/?id=0-skPdXtewwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | ref = harv }} {{cite book|ref=harv|first1=Gerald P.|last1= Verbrugghe|first2=John Moore|last2= Wickersham|title=Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kAED-kQCJkC|year=2001|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-08687-1}} {{cite book | last1 = Whitelam | first1 = Keith W. | editor1-last = Rogerson | editor1-first= John William | editor2-last = Lieu | editor2-first= Judith | title = The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies | chapter = General problems of studying the text of the bible... | year = 2006 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780199254255 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HMkMeaijNT4C&pg=PA255 | ref = harv }} {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Ralpth C | editor = Watson E. Mills (General Editor) | title = Mercer Dictionary of the Bible | publisher = Mercer University Press | chapter = Genre, Concept of | date = 1990 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=Mercer+dictionary+bible+genre+concept#v=onepage&q=Mercer%20dictionary%20bible%20genre%20concept&f=false | ref = harv | isbn = 9780865543737 }}{{refend}} External links{{sisterlinks|d=Q1290338|c=Category:Departure_of_the_Israelites|voy=The Exodus of Moses|m=no|mw=no|wikt=Exodus|n=no|b=no|q=no|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Exodus, The|v=no}}{{Passover Footer}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Exodus}} 8 : Egypt in the Hebrew Bible|Book of Exodus|Stations of the Exodus|Jewish mythology|Moses|Myth of origins|Passover|Sacred history |
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