词条 | The Languages of Africa |
释义 |
| name = The Languages of Africa | image = File:The Languages of Africa, first edition.jpg | caption = Cover of the first edition | author = Joseph Greenberg | country = United States | language = English | subject = Languages of Africa | published = 1963 | media_type = Print | pages = | isbn = }} The Languages of Africa is a 1963 book of essays by Joseph Greenberg, in which the author sets forth a genetic classification of African languages that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work Studies in African Linguistic Classification, which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by Indiana University, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited. Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method:
InnovationsGreenberg's Niger–Congo family was substantially foreshadowed by Westermann's "Western Sudanic", but he changed the subclassification, including Fulani (as West Atlantic) and the newly postulated Adamawa–Eastern, excluding Songhai, and classifying Bantu as merely a subfamily of Benue–Congo (previously termed "Semi-Bantu"). Semitic, Berber, Egyptian and Cushitic had been generally accepted as members of a "Hamito-Semitic" family, while Chadic, Fulani, "Nilo-Hamitic" and Hottentot had all been controversially proposed as members. He accepted Chadic (while changing its membership), and rejected the other three, establishing to most linguists' satisfaction that they had been classified as "Hamitic" for purely typological reasons. This demonstration also led to the rejection (by him and by linguistics as a whole) of the term Hamitic as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "Afroasiatic". Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hadza (Hatsa) and Sandawe. His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the Nilo-Saharan family. This is still controversial, because so far attempts to reconstruct this family have been unsuccessful, but it holds promise and is it widely used. Prior linguists had noticed an apparent relationship between the majority of the languages, but had never formally proposed a family. These languages – the Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic, Kunama and Berta branches – Greenberg placed into a core group he called Chari–Nile, to which he added all the remaining unclassified languages of Africa that did not have noun classes. The distinction between Chari–Nile and the peripheral branches has since been abandoned. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation. Finally, he assigned the unclassified languages of the Nuba Hills of Kordofan to the Niger–Congo family, calling the result Congo–Kordofanian. The relationship has been accepted, with the exception of the "Tumtum" group, though the Kordofanian languages are no longer seen as being a primary branch, and the name 'Congo–Kordofanian' is no longer used. Greenberg's four families became the dominant conception of African languages, though his subclassification did not fare as well. Niger−Congo and Afroasiatic are nearly universally accepted, with no significant support for Hamitic or the independence of Bantu. Nilo-Saharan is still considered provisional. Khoisan is now rejected by specialists, except as a term of convenience, though it may be retained in less specialized literature. ClassificationThe book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related to each other, as follows: I. Congo–KordofanianI.A Niger–Congo I.A.1 West Atlantic I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof, Serer-Sin, Fulani, Serer-Non, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada, Badyara (Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana, Cassanga, Bidyogo I.A.1.b Southern: Temne, Baga, Landoma, Kissi, Bulom, Limba, Gola I.A.2 Mande I.A.2.a Western I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi, Huela, Vai, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke Bobo I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle (Guerze) I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku (Sembla), Kpan, Banka I.A.2.b Eastern I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan (Gio), Guro (Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga I.A.3 Voltaic I.A.3.a Senoufo: Minianka, Tagba, Foro, Tagwana (Takponin), Dyimini, Nafana I.A.3.b. I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c) I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala I.A.3.f Bargu (Bariba) I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba I.A.3.x Dogon[1] I.A.4 Kwa I.A.4.a Kru: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi) I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe, Adyukru, Akan (Twi, Anyi, Baule, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga, Adangme I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala I.A.4.d Nupe, Gbari, Igbira, Gade I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo I.A.4.f Idoma, Agatu, Iyala I.A.4.g Ibo I.A.4.h Ijo I.A.5 Benue–Congo I.A.5.A Plateau I.A.5.A.1 I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten) I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom I.A.5.A.5 Eggon, Nungu, Yeskwa I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa I.A.5.B Jukunoid: Jukun, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu I.A.5.C Cross-River I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio, Efik, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo I.A.5.D Bantoid: Tiv, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila, Bute, Bantu I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern I.A.6.A Adamawa I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu I.A.6.A.2 Chamba, Donga, Lekon, Wom, Mumbake I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari, Sewe, Woko, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna I.A.6.A.6 Dama, Mono, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum, Kpere, Lakka, Dek I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba I.A.6.A.8 Kam I.A.6.A.9 Jen, Munga I.A.6.A.10 Longuda I.A.6.A.11 Fali I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari I.A.6.A.13 Bua, Nielim, Koke I.A.6.A.14 Masa I.A.6.B Eastern I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya, Manja, Mbaka I.A.6.B.2 Banda I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi, Sango, Yakoma I.A.6.B.4 Zande, Nzakara, Barambo, Pambia I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo I.A.6.B.7 Amadi (Madyo, Ma) I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga) I.B Kordofanian I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi, Tumale I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo, Miri, Kadugli, Katcha I.B.5 Katla: Katla, Tima II. Nilo-SaharanII.A Songhai II.B Saharan II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu II.B.b Teda, Daza II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti II.C Maban: Maba, Runga, Mimi of Nachtigal, Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes II.D. Fur II.E. Chari–Nile II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic II.E.1.1 Nubian II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (Mahas-Fadidja and Kenuzi-Dongola) II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr II.E.1.1.c Midob II.E.1.1.d Birked II.E.1.2 Murle (Beir), Longarim, Didinga, Suri, Mekan, Murzu, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo II.E.1.3 Barea II.E.1.4 Ingassana (Tabi) II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti II.E.1.6 Temein, Teis-um-Danab II.E.1.7 Merarit, Tama, Sungor II.E.1.8 Dagu of Darfur, Baygo, Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri II.E.1.9 Nilotic II.E.1.9.a Western II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk, Anuak, Acholi, Lango, Alur, Luo, Jur, Bor II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka, Nuer II.E.1.9.b Eastern II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari, Fajulu, Kakwa, Mondari II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie, Dodoth, Karamojong, Teso, Topotha, Turkana II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern: Nandi, Suk, Tatoga[2] II.E.1.10 Nyangiya, Teuso II.E.2 Central Sudanic II.E.2.1 Bongo, Baka, Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, Sara dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, Bagirmi, Kuka, Kenga, Disa, Bubalia II.E.2.2 Kreish II.E.2.3 Binga, Yulu, Kara [= Tar Gula] II.E.2.4 Moru, Avukaya, Logo, Keliko, Lugbara, Madi II.E.2.5 Mangbetu, Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua II.E.2.6 Mangbutu, Mamvu, Lese, Mvuba, Efe II.E.2.7 Lendu II.E.3 Berta II.E.4 Kunama II.F Koman/Coman: Komo, Ganza, Uduk, Gule, Gumuz, Mao III. AfroasiaticIII.A Semitic III.B Egyptian III.C Berber III.D Cushitic III.D.1 Northern Cushitic: Beja (Bedauye) III.D.2 Central Cushitic: Bogo (Bilin), Kamir, Khamta, Awiya, Damot, Kemant, Kayla, Quara III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic: Saho-Afar, Somali, Galla, Konso, Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, Arbore), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, Burji, Sidamo, Darasa, Kambata, Alaba, Hadya, Tambaro, Mogogodo (added 1966) III.D.4 Western Cushitic: Janjero, Wolamo, Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, Gimira, Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, Maji, Kafa, Garo, Mocha, Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, Dime, Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo III.D.5 Southern Cushitic: Burungi (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), Iraqw, Mbugu, Sanye [= Dahalo], Ngomvia (added 1966) III.E Chad III.E.1 III.E.1.a Hausa, Gwandara III.E.1.b Ngizim, Mober [= Kanuri, not Chadic], Auyokawa, Shirawa, Bede III.E.1.c III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Sayawa, Barawa of Dass III.E.1.d III.E.1.d.i Bolewa, Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), Tangale, Pia, Pero, Chongee, Maha (added 1966) III.E.1.d.ii Angas, Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka III.E.1.d.iii Ron III.E.2 Kotoko group: Logone, Ngala [= Mpade?], Buduma, Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri III.E.3 Bata–Margi group III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, Margi, Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, Tera, Jera, Hinna (Hina) III.E.4 III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, Mofu, Matakam III.E.5 Gidder III.E.6 Mandara, Gamergu III.E.7 Musgu III.E.8 Bana, Banana (Masa), Lame, Kulung III.E.9 III.E.9.a Somrai, Tumak, Ndam, Miltu, Sarwa, Gulei [= Tumak?] III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein III.E.9.d Modgel III.E.9.e Tuburi III.E.9.f Mubi, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid) IV KhoisanIV.A South African Khoisan IV.A.1 Northern South African Khoisan IV.A.2 Central South African Khoisan IV.A.3 Southern South African Khoisan IV.B Sandawe IV.C Hatsa Bibliography
References1. ^1966: "should probably be considered a new separate subgroup. If anything, it is nearest to group c" {{DEFAULTSORT:Languages of Africa}}2. ^The text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c. 6 : 1963 books|Books on linguistic typology|Classification of African languages|English-language books|Languages of Africa|Linguistics books |
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