“Thomas Cromwell”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, {{postnominals|country=GBR|sep=,|size=100%|KG|PCe}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɒ|m|w|əl|,_|-|w|ɛ|l}};^[1] {{circa}} 1485 – 28 July 1540) was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540, when he was beheaded on orders of the king.

Cromwell was one of the strongest and most powerful proponents of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to Queen Catherine so that Henry could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn. Henry failed to obtain the Pope's approval for the annulment in 1534, so Parliament endorsed the king's claim to be Supreme Head of the Church of England, giving him the authority to annul his own marriage. However, Cromwell subsequently charted an evangelical and reformist course for the Church of England from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.^[2]{{rp|658, fn. 2}}

During his rise to power, Cromwell made many enemies, including his former ally Anne Boleyn. He played a prominent role in her downfall.^[3] He later fell from power, after arranging the king's marriage to German princess Anne of Cleves. Cromwell had hoped that the marriage would breathe fresh life into the Reformation in England, but Henry found his new bride unattractive and it turned into a disaster for Cromwell, ending in an annulment six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under a bill of attainder and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The king later expressed regret at the loss of his chief minister.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2008|p=269}}

Early life

Thomas Cromwell was born around 1485, in Putney, Surrey, the son of Walter Cromwell, a blacksmith, fuller and cloth merchant, and owner of both a hostelry and a brewery.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} Walter Cromwell is considered by some to be of Irish ancestry.^[4] Thomas's mother, Katherine, was the aunt of Nicholas Glossop of Wirksworth in Derbyshire. She lived in Putney in the house of a local attorney, John Welbeck, at the time of her marriage to Walter Cromwell in 1474.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Cromwell had two sisters: the elder, Katherine, married Morgan Williams, a Welsh lawyer; the younger, Elizabeth, married a farmer, William Wellyfed. Katherine and Morgan's son, Richard, was employed in his uncle's service and changed his name to Cromwell.

Little is known about Cromwell's early life. It is believed that he was born at the top of Putney Hill, on the edge of Putney Heath. In 1878, his birthplace was still of note:

Cromwell declared to Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer that he had been a "ruffian… in his young days".{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} As a youth, he left his family in Putney, and crossed the Channel to the continent. Accounts of his activities in France, Italy and the Low Countries are sketchy and contradictory. It is alleged^[5]{{by whom|date=April 2016}} that he first became a mercenary, and marched with the French army to Italy, where he fought in the Battle of Garigliano on 28 December 1503. While in Italy, he entered service in the household of the Florentine banker Francesco Frescobaldi.^[5]{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Later, he visited leading mercantile centres in the Low Countries, living among the English merchants and developing a network of contacts while learning several languages. At some point he returned to Italy. The records of the English Hospital in Rome indicate that he stayed there in June 1514,{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} while documents in the Vatican Archives suggest that he was an agent for the Archbishop of York, Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge, and handled English ecclesiastical issues before the Roman Rota.{{sfn|Kinney|2001|p=172}}

Marriage and issue

At one point during these years, Cromwell returned to England, where around 1515 he married Elizabeth Wyckes (d. 1529).{{sfn|Fitzgerald and MacCulloch|2016}} She was the widow of Thomas Williams, a Yeoman of the Guard, and the daughter of a Putney shearman, Henry Wykes, who had served as a gentleman usher to King Henry VII.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Cromwell's wife died early in 1529{{sfn|Fitzgerald and MacCulloch|2016}} and his daughters, Anne and Grace, are believed to have died not long after their mother. Their death may have been to Sweating sickness. Provisions made for Anne and Grace in Cromwell's will, dated 12 July 1529, were crossed out at some later date.{{sfn|Schofield|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|Merriman I|1902|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/lifelettersoftho01merruoft#page/58/mode/2up 59, 60]}} Gregory outlived his father by only 11 years, succumbing to sweating sickness in 1551.{{sfn|Cokayne III|1913|pp=557–559}}{{sfn|Strype II(I)|1822|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/ecclesiasticalme0201stry#page/492/mode/2up 493–494]}}{{sfn|Hawkyard|1982}}{{sfn|Hoby|1902|p=73}}{{sfn|Winchester|1955|p=270}}

Thomas Cromwell also had an illegitimate daughter, Jane (c. 1535 – 1580),{{sfn|Beazley|1908|p=82|ps=: Jane Hough was buried 3 November 1580 at Neston.}} whose early life is a complete mystery. According to novelist Dame Hilary Mantel, "Cromwell had an illegitimate daughter, and beyond the fact that she existed, we know very little about her. She comes briefly into the records, in an incredibly obscure way — she's in the archives of the county of Chester."^[6]{{sfn|Bindoff|1982}}{{sfn|Glover|1882|pp=127–128}}{{sfn|Edwards|1982}} Jane married William Hough (c. 1527–1585), of Leighton in Wirral, Cheshire, around 1550.{{sfn|Fitzgerald and MacCulloch|2016}}{{sfn|Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII|loc=14(2), 782|ps=: Cromwell's accounts note a payment of £12 14s. 4d. for 'apparel for Mrs. Jane' on 23 May 1539.}} William Hough was the son of Richard Hough (1508–73/74) who was Cromwell's agent in Chester from 1534-40.{{sfn|Glover|1882|pp=127–28}}{{sfn|Noble II|1787|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oaRCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false 5]}}{{sfn|Ormerod|1819|p=304}}{{sfn|Edwards|1982}} It is unknown what role Thomas and Gregory Cromwell played in her life. Jane and her husband William Hough remained staunch Roman Catholics, who, together with their daughter, Alice, her husband, William Whitmore, and their children, all came to the attention of the authorities as recusants during the reign of Elizabeth I.{{sfn|Wark|1971|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ8NAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153#v=onepage&q&f=false 153], [https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ8NAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168#v=onepage&q&f=false 168]}}

Lawyer, Member of Parliament, adviser to Wolsey

In 1517, and again in 1518, Cromwell led an embassy to Rome to obtain from Pope Leo X a papal bull for the reinstatement of Indulgences for the town of Boston, Lincolnshire.{{sfn|Elton|1991a|p=2}}

By 1520, Cromwell was firmly established in London mercantile and legal circles.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} In 1523, he obtained a seat in the House of Commons as a Burgess, though the constituency he represented has not been identified.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} After Parliament had been dissolved, Cromwell wrote a letter to a friend, jesting about the session's lack of productivity:

From around 1516 to 1530, Cromwell was a member of the household of Lord Chancellor Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. He was one of Wolsey's council by 1519, and his secretary by 1529.{{sfn|Bindoff|1982}} In the mid-1520s, Cromwell assisted in the dissolution of nearly thirty monasteries to raise funds for Wolsey to found The King's School, Ipswich (1528), and Cardinal College, in Oxford (1529).{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} In 1526, Wolsey appointed Cromwell a member of his council; by 1529, Cromwell was one of Wolsey's most senior and trusted advisers. By the end of October of that year, however, Wolsey had fallen from power.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} Cromwell had made enemies by aiding Wolsey to suppress the monasteries, but was determined not to fall with his master, as he told George Cavendish, then a Gentleman Usher and later Wolsey's biographer:

Royal favourite

Cromwell successfully overcame the shadow cast over his career by Wolsey's downfall. By November 1529, he had secured a seat in Parliament as a member for Taunton{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} and was reported to be in favour with the King.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} At some point during the closing weeks of 1530, the King appointed him to the Privy Council.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Cromwell held numerous offices during his career in the King's service, including:

as well as numerous minor offices.{{sfn|Bindoff|1982}}{{sfn|Hutchinson|2008|pp=271–276}}

Anne Boleyn

From 1527, Henry VIII had sought to have his marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon annulled, so that he could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn. At the centre of the campaign to secure the annulment was the emerging doctrine of royal supremacy over the church. By the autumn of 1531, Cromwell had taken control of the supervision of the king's legal and parliamentary affairs, working closely with Thomas Audley, and had joined the inner circle of the Council. By the following spring, he had begun to exert influence over elections to the House of Commons.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

The third session of what is now known as the Reformation Parliament had been scheduled for October 1531, but was postponed until 15 January 1532 because of government indecision as to the best way to proceed. Cromwell now favoured the assertion of royal supremacy, and manipulated the Commons by resurrecting anti-clerical grievances expressed earlier in the session of 1529. On 18 March 1532, the Commons delivered a supplication to the king, denouncing clerical abuses and the power of the ecclesiastical courts, and describing Henry as "the only head, sovereign lord, protector and defender" of the Church. The clergy resisted the Act of 1529 where they were prevented from appealing to Church-established courts, or Ecclesiastical court to settle disputes. Instead they were forced to go through the public courts as lay people.{{clarify|date=April 2016}} The clergy capitulated when faced with the threat of parliamentary reprisal. On 14 May 1532, Parliament was prorogued. Two days later, Sir Thomas More resigned as Lord Chancellor, realising that the battle to save the marriage was lost. More's resignation from the Council represented a triumph for Cromwell and the pro-Reformation faction at court.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

The king's gratitude to Cromwell was expressed in a grant of the lordship of Romney{{clarify|date=April 2016}} in Newport, Wales, and appointment to three relatively minor offices: Master of the Jewels on 14 April 1532, Clerk of the Hanaper on 16 July, and Chancellor of the Exchequer on 12 April 1533. None of these offices afforded much income, but the appointments were an indication of royal favour, and gave Cromwell a position in three major institutions of government: the royal household, the Chancery, and the Exchequer.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

On 26 January 1533, Audley was appointed Lord Chancellor, and Cromwell increased his control over the Commons through his management of by-elections. Henry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a secret marriage on 14 November 1532 that historians believe took place in Calais. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid.

The parliamentary session began on 4 February, and Cromwell introduced a new bill restricting the right to make appeals to Rome. On 30 March, Cranmer was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury, and Convocation immediately declared the king's marriage to Catherine unlawful. In the first week of April 1533, Parliament passed Cromwell's bill into law, as the Act in Restraint of Appeals, ensuring that any verdict concerning the king's marriage could not be challenged in Rome. On 11 April, Archbishop Cranmer sent the King a pro forma challenge to the validity of his marriage to Catherine. A formal trial began on 10 May 1533 in Dunstable and on 23 May the Archbishop pronounced sentence, declaring the marriage illegal. Five days later he pronounced the King's marriage to Anne to be lawful, and on 1 June, she was crowned queen.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

In December, the King authorised Cromwell to discredit the papacy and the Pope was attacked throughout the nation in sermons and pamphlets. In 1534 a new Parliament was summoned, again under Cromwell's supervision, to enact the legislation necessary to make a formal break of England's remaining ties with Rome. Archbishop Cranmer's sentence took statutory form as the Act of Succession, the Dispensations Act reiterated royal supremacy and the Act for the Submission of the Clergy incorporated into law the clergy's surrender in 1532. On 30 March 1534, Audley gave royal assent to the legislation in the presence of the King.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

King's chief minister

In April 1534, Henry confirmed Cromwell as his principal secretary and chief minister, a position which he had held for some time in all but name. Cromwell immediately took steps to enforce the legislation just passed by Parliament. Before the members of both houses returned home on 30 March, they were required to swear an oath accepting the Act of Succession, and all the King's subjects were now required to swear to the legitimacy of the marriage and, by implication, to accept the King's new powers and the break from Rome. On 13 April, the London clergy accepted the oath. On the same day, the commissioners offered it to Sir Thomas More and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, both of whom refused it. More was taken into custody on the same day and was moved to the Tower of London on 17 April. Fisher joined him there four days later.

On 18 April, an order was issued that all citizens of London were to swear. Similar orders were issued throughout the country. When Parliament reconvened in November, Cromwell brought in the most significant revision of the treason laws since 1352, making it treasonous to speak rebellious words against the Royal Family, to deny their titles, or to call the King a heretic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper. The Act of Supremacy also clarified the King's position as head of the church and the Act for Payment of First Fruits and Tenths substantially increased clerical taxes. Cromwell also strengthened his own control over the Church. On 21 January 1535, the King appointed him Royal Vicegerent and Vicar-General, and commissioned him to organise visitations of all the country's churches, monasteries, and clergy. In this capacity, Cromwell conducted a census in 1535 to enable the government to tax church property more effectively.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Fall of Anne Boleyn

The final session of the Reformation Parliament began on 4 February 1536. By 18 March, an Act for the Suppression of the Lesser Monasteries, those with a gross income of less than £200 per annum, had passed both houses. This caused a clash with Anne Boleyn, formerly one of Cromwell's strongest allies, who wanted the proceeds of the dissolution used for educational and charitable purposes, not paid into the King's coffers.^[7]

Anne instructed her chaplains to preach against the Vicegerent, and in a blistering sermon on Passion Sunday, 2 April 1536, her almoner, John Skip, denounced Cromwell and his fellow Privy Councillors before the entire court. Skip's diatribe was intended to persuade courtiers and Privy Councillors to change the advice they had been giving the King and to reject the temptation of personal gain. Skip was called before the Council and accused of malice, slander, presumption, lack of charity, sedition, treason, disobedience to the gospel, attacking 'the great posts, pillars and columns sustaining and holding up the commonwealth' and inviting anarchy.{{sfn|Ives|2005|pp=307–310}}{{sfn|Schofield|2011|pp=176–179}}

Anne, who had many enemies at court, had never been popular with the people and had so far failed to produce a male heir. The King was growing impatient, having become enamoured of the young Jane Seymour and encouraged by Anne's enemies, particularly Nicholas Carew and the Seymours. In circumstances that have divided historians, Anne was accused of adultery with Mark Smeaton, a musician of the royal household, Henry Norris, the King's groom of the stool and one of his closest friends, Sir Francis Weston, William Brereton and her brother, Viscount Rochford.{{sfn|Lipscomb|April 2013|pp=18–24}}{{sfn|Schofield|2011|pp=192–205}} The Imperial Ambassador, Eustace Chapuys, wrote to Charles V that:

The Queen and her brother stood trial on Monday 15 May, while the four others accused with them were condemned on the Friday beforehand. The men were executed on 17 May 1536 and, on the same day, Cranmer declared Henry's marriage to Anne invalid, a ruling that illegitimised their daughter, Princess Elizabeth. Two days later, Anne herself was executed. On 30 May, the King married Jane Seymour. On 8 June, a new Parliament passed the second Act of Succession, securing the rights of Queen Jane's heirs to the throne.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Baron Cromwell and Lord Privy Seal

Cromwell's position was now stronger than ever. He succeeded Anne Boleyn's father, Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, as Lord Privy Seal on 2 July 1536, resigning the office of Master of the Rolls, which he had held since 8 October 1534. On 8 July 1536, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Cromwell of Okeham.{{sfn|Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII|loc=11, 202(3) and 202(14)}}

Religious reform

Cromwell orchestrated the dissolution of the monasteries and visitations to the universities and colleges in 1535, which had strong links to the church. This resulted in the dispersal and destruction of many books deemed 'popish' and 'superstitious'. This has been described as 'easily the greatest single disaster in English literary history'. Oxford University was left without a library collection until Sir Thomas Bodley's donation in 1602.^[12]

In July 1536, the first attempt was made to clarify religious doctrine after the break with Rome. Bishop Edward Foxe tabled proposals in Convocation, with strong backing from Cromwell and Cranmer, which the King later endorsed as the Ten Articles and which were printed in August 1536. Cromwell circulated injunctions for their enforcement that went beyond the Articles themselves, provoking opposition in September and October in Lincolnshire and then throughout the six northern counties. These widespread popular and clerical uprisings found support among the gentry and even the nobility; they were collectively known as the Pilgrimage of Grace.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

The rebels' grievances were wide-ranging, but the most significant was the suppression of the monasteries, blamed on the King's "evil counsellors", principally Cromwell and Cranmer. One of the leaders of the rebellion was Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Darcy, who gave Cromwell the prophetic warning (just prior to his execution) "others that have been in such favour with kings as you now enjoy have come to the same fate you bring me to".{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

The suppression of the risings spurred further Reformation measures. In February 1537, Cromwell convened a vicegerential synod of bishops and doctors. The synod was co-ordinated by Cranmer and Foxe, and they prepared a draft document by July: The Institution of a Christian Man, more commonly known as the Bishops' Book. By October, it was in circulation, although the King had not yet given it his full assent. However, Cromwell's success in Church politics was offset by the fact that his political influence had been weakened by the emergence of a Privy Council, a body of nobles and office-holders that first came together to suppress the Pilgrimage of Grace. The King confirmed his support of Cromwell by appointing him to the Order of the Garter on 5 August 1537, but Cromwell was nonetheless forced to accept the existence of an executive body dominated by his conservative opponents.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

In January 1538, Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what was termed "idolatry" by the followers of the old religion. Statues, rood screens, and images were attacked, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. Early in September, Cromwell also completed a new set of vicegerential injunctions declaring open war on "pilgrimages, feigned relics or images, or any such superstitions" and commanding that "one book of the whole Bible in English" be set up in every church. Moreover, following the "voluntary" surrender of the remaining smaller monasteries during the previous year, the larger monasteries were now also "invited" to surrender throughout 1538, a process legitimised in the 1539 session of Parliament and completed in the following year.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Resistance to further religious reform

The King was becoming increasingly unhappy about the extent of religious changes, and the conservative faction was gaining strength at court. Cromwell took the initiative against his enemies. He imprisoned the Marquess of Exeter, Sir Edward Neville, and Sir Nicholas Carew on charges of treason in November 1538, using evidence acquired from Sir Geoffrey Pole under interrogation in the Tower. All were executed in the following months.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

On 17 December 1538, the Inquisitor-General of France forbade the printing of Miles Coverdale's Great Bible. Cromwell persuaded the King of France to release the unfinished books so that printing could continue in England. The first edition was finally available in April 1539. The publication of the Great Bible was one of Cromwell's principal achievements, the first authoritative version in English.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

The King, however, continued to resist further Reformation measures. A Parliamentary committee was established to examine doctrine, and the Duke of Norfolk presented six questions on 16 May 1539 for the House to consider, which were duly passed as the Act of Six Articles shortly before the session ended on 28 June. The Six Articles reaffirmed a traditional view of the Mass, the Sacraments, and the priesthood.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Anne of Cleves

Queen Jane had died in 1537, less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, the future Edward VI. In early October 1539, the King finally accepted Cromwell's suggestion that he should marry Anne of Cleves, the sister of Duke Wilhelm of Cleves, partly on the basis of a portrait which Hans Holbein had painted of her. On 27 December, Anne of Cleves arrived at Dover. On New Year's Day 1540, the King met her at Rochester and was immediately repelled by her physically: "I like her not!" The wedding ceremony took place on 6 January at Greenwich, but the marriage was not consummated. Henry said that he found it impossible to enjoy conjugal relations with a woman whom he found so unattractive.{{sfn|Weir|1991|pp=377–78, 386–88, 395, 405, 410–11}}

Earl of Essex

On 18 April 1540, Henry granted Cromwell the earldom of Essex and the senior Court office of Lord Great Chamberlain.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} Despite these signs of royal favour, Cromwell's tenure as the King's chief minister was almost over. The King's anger at being forced to marry Anne of Cleves was the opportunity Cromwell's conservative opponents, most notably the Duke of Norfolk, needed to topple him.{{sfn|Weir|1991|pp=412, 418}}

Downfall and execution

During 1536 Cromwell had proven himself an adept political survivor. However, the gradual slide towards Protestantism at home and the King's ill-starred marriage to Anne of Cleves, which Cromwell engineered in January 1540, proved costly. Some historians believe that Hans Holbein the Younger was partly responsible for Cromwell's downfall because he had provided a very flattering portrait of Anne which may have deceived the king. (The 65 × 48 cm painting is now displayed at the Louvre in Paris.) When Henry finally met her, the king was reportedly shocked by her plain appearance.^[13] It should be noted that Cromwell had passed on to Henry some exaggerated claims of Anne's beauty.^[14]^[15]

The Franco-Imperial alliance had failed to materialise, and Henry had therefore been subjected to an unnecessary conjugal difficulty which loosened his Principal Secretary's control of events. In early 1540, Cromwell's conservative, aristocratic enemies, headed by the Duke of Norfolk and assisted by Bishop Gardiner (colloquially known as 'Wily Winchester'), saw in Catherine Howard an opportunity to displace their foe.

Cromwell was arrested at a Council meeting on 10 June 1540, accused of a list of charges. He was imprisoned in the Tower. His enemies took every opportunity to humiliate him: they even tore off his Order of the Garter, remarking that "A traitor must not wear it." His initial reaction was defiance: "This then is my reward for faithful service!" he cried out, and angrily defied his fellow Councillors to call him a traitor. A Bill of Attainder containing a long list of indictments, including supporting Anabaptists, corrupt practices, leniency in matters of justice, acting for personal gain, protecting Protestants accused of heresy and thus failing to enforce the Act of Six Articles, and plotting to marry Lady Mary Tudor, was introduced into the House of Lords a week later and passed on 29 June 1540.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}^[16]

He was also connected with 'sacramentarians' (those who denied transubstantiation) in Calais.^[17] All Cromwell's honours were forfeited and it was publicly proclaimed that he could only be called "Thomas Cromwell, cloth carder".^[18] The King deferred the execution until his marriage to Anne of Cleves could be annulled: Anne, with remarkable common sense, happily agreed to an amicable annulment and was treated with great generosity by Henry as a result. Hoping for clemency, Cromwell wrote in support of the annulment, in his last personal address to the King.{{sfn|Weir|1991|pp=419–20}} He ended the letter: "Most gracious Prince, I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy."{{sfn|Hutchinson|2008|p=254}}

Cromwell was condemned to death without trial, lost all his titles and property and was beheaded on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540 in a public execution, the day of the King's marriage to Catherine Howard.{{sfn|Warnicke|2008}} The executioner had great difficulty severing the head.^[19] Cromwell made a prayer and speech on the scaffold, professing to die, "in the traditional faith" [Catholic] and denying that he had aided heretics.^[20] Edward Hall, a contemporary chronicler, records that Cromwell then "so patiently suffered the stroke of the axe, by a ragged and Boocherly [butcher-like] miser, whiche very ungoodly perfourmed the Office".{{sfn|Hall|1809|p=839}} Afterwards, his head was set on a spike on London Bridge.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Henry came to regret Cromwell's killing and later accused his ministers of bringing about Cromwell's downfall by "pretexts" and "false accusations".^[20] On 3 March 1541, the French Ambassador, Charles de Marillac, reported in a letter that the King was now said to be lamenting that,

There remains an element of what G. R. Elton describes as 'mystery' about Cromwell's demise. In April 1540, just three months before he went to the block, he was created Earl of Essex and Lord Great Chamberlain. The arbitrary and unpredictable streak in the King's personality, which more than once exercised influence during his reign, had surfaced again and washed Cromwell away in its wake.^[21]

During Cromwell's years in power, he skilfully managed Crown finances and extended royal authority. In 1536, he established the Court of Augmentations to handle the massive windfall to the royal coffers from the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Two other important financial institutions, the Court of Wards and the Court of First Fruits and Tenths, owed their existence to him, although they were not set up until after his death. He strengthened royal authority in the north of England, through reform of the Council of the North, extended royal power and introduced Protestantism in Ireland, and was the architect of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, which promoted stability and gained acceptance for the royal supremacy in Wales. He also introduced important social and economic reforms in England in the 1530s, including action against enclosures, the promotion of English cloth exports and the poor relief legislation of 1536.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Personal religious beliefs

Although Cromwell always maintained a primarily political outlook on general affairs, there is consensus among scholars that at least while he held power he was a Protestant, with a Lutheran mindset. For him, the Henrician Reformation was certainly more than a jurisdictional revolution masquerading in religious garb. For instance, in the mid-1530s, he promoted Protestant ideas to forge an alliance with German Lutheran states, but his support for the Protestant cause is too general to be accurately explained in narrow political terms.^[22]

In 1535 Cromwell succeeded in having clearly identified reformers, such as Hugh Latimer, Edward Foxe and Nicholas Shaxton appointed to the episcopacy. He encouraged and supported the work of reformers, such as Robert Barnes and obtained the license to publish the Matthew's Bible, provided significant funding for the printing of this English translation of the Bible and sent one to all parishes in England.^[23]^[24] By 1538, it was compulsory for all churches to own a Bible, in accordance with Cromwell's injunctions.^[25]^[26] The revised version, the Great Bible was widely available by 1539 and included a picture of Henry VIII, Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell on the title page.^[27]^[28]

When Cromwell fell from favour in 1540, his alleged support for Anabaptism was cited. Although the charge was spurious, the fact that it was levelled at all demonstrates the reputation for evangelical sympathies Cromwell had developed.^[29]

Historical significance

Until the 1950s, historians discounted Cromwell's role, calling him a doctrinaire hack who was little more than the agent of the despotic King Henry VIII; for example the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states "his power has been overrated."^[30] Geoffrey Elton, however, featured him as the central figure in the Tudor revolution in government in The Tudor Revolution (1953). Elton portrayed Cromwell as the presiding genius, much more so than the king, handling the break with Rome and creating the laws and administrative procedures that reshaped post-Reformation England. Elton wrote that Cromwell had been responsible for translating royal supremacy into parliamentary terms, creating powerful new organs of government to take charge of Church lands, and largely removing the medieval features of central government.

Subsequent historians have agreed with Elton as to Cromwell's importance, though not with his claims of "revolution."{{sfn|Bernard|1998|pp=587–607 Bernard argues Elton exaggerated Cromwell's role}}{{sfn|Coby|2009|p=197}}{{sfn|Kenyon|1983|p=210}} Leithead (2004) wrote, "Against significant opposition he secured acceptance of the king's new powers, created a more united and more easily governable kingdom, and provided the crown, at least temporarily, with a very significant landed endowment."{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

Descendants

Thomas Cromwell's son Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell, married Elizabeth Seymour, the sister of Queen Jane Seymour and widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred. They had five children:{{sfn|Richardson, Magna Carta Ancestry III|2011|p=111}}{{sfn|Richardson, Plantagenet Ancestry I|2011|p=604}}

Cromwell's illegitimate daughter Jane had a daughter Alice with her husband William Hough.^[31]

Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell was the great-grandson of Richard Cromwell, Thomas Cromwell's nephew.{{sfn|Williams|1975|p=142}}

Actor Danny Dyer discovered that he was the fifteen times great-grandson of Cromwell in the BBC series Who Do You Think You Are?

Hans Holbein portraits

Thomas Cromwell was a patron of Hans Holbein the Younger, as were St. Thomas More and Anne Boleyn. In the New York Frick Collection, two portraits by Holbein hang facing each other on the same wall of the Study, one depicting Thomas Cromwell, the other Thomas More, whose execution he had procured.^[32]

Fictional portrayals

Cromwell has been portrayed in a number of plays, feature films, and television miniseries, usually as a villainous character. More recently, however, Hilary Mantel's two Man Booker Prize-winning novels Wolf Hall (2009) and Bring up the Bodies (2012) have sought to show him in a more sympathetic light, stressing his family affections, genuine respect for Cardinal Wolsey, zeal for the Reformation, and support for a limited degree of social reform.

Theatre

Novels

Film

Television

References

1. ^{{cite web|title=Cromwell|work=Collins English Dictionary|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/cromwell|publisher=HarperCollins |accessdate=18 December 2013}}
2. ^Logan argues that these titles refer to a single position. {{cite journal|author1=F. Donald Logan|title=Thomas Cromwell and the Vicegerency in Spirituals: A Revisitation|journal=The English Historical Review|date=July 1988|volume=103|issue=408|pages=658–67|jstor=572696}}
3. ^{{cite book|author=Peter C. Herman|title=A Short History of Early Modern England: British Literature in Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XimmPRO1sQUC&pg=PA82|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=82|isbn=9781444394993}}
4. ^{{cite book|author=Diarmaid MacCulloch|title=Thomas Cromwell: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLBwDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP36|date=27 September 2018|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-196766-0|page=36}}
5. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.historyextra.com/feature/tudors/thomas-cromwell-life-before-Henry-VIII-Tudor-court|title=Thomas Cromwell's life before Henry VIII}}
6. ^{{cite web|last=Miller|first=George|title=Hilary Mantel interview revisited|url=http://podularity.com/2010/09/03/hilary-mantel-interview-revisited/|publisher=Podularity.com|accessdate=26 November 2013}}
7. ^Eric Ives "the Life and Death of Anne Boleyn"
8. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3v4ONgWH2zUC&pg=PA56&dq=cromwell+anne+boleyn's+fall#v=onepage&q=cromwell+anne+boleyn's+fall&f=false|title=The Lady in the Tower: The Fall of Anne Boleyn|first=Alison|last=Weir|date=5 January 2010|page=56|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|accessdate=14 January 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780345519788}}
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11. ^{{harvnb|Blomefield|1808|pp=486–495}} On becoming Earl of Essex, Thomas Cromwell adopted new arms; quarterly, per fess, indented, azure and or four lions passant counterchanged
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18. ^"The Complete Peerage", new edition by Hon. Vicary Gibbs, (St Catherine Press, London), vol III, p. 557.
19. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xzZ0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT375&dq=thomas+cromwell++execution+edward+hall#v=onepage&q=thomas+cromwell++execution+edward+hall&f=false|title=Thomas Cromwell: The Untold Story of Henry VIII's Most Faithful Servant|first=Tracy|last=Borman|date=11 September 2014|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|accessdate=14 January 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781444782875}}
20. ^¹{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yoevCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143&dq=thomas+cromwell+prayer+so+patiently+suffered+the+stroke+of+the+axe,#v=onepage&q=thomas+cromwell+prayer+so+patiently+suffered+the+stroke+of+the+axe,&f=false|title=Thomas Cromwell: Tudor Minister|first=B. W.|last=Beckingsale|date=17 June 1978|page=143|publisher=Springer|accessdate=14 January 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781349016648}}
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22. ^William Underwood, "Thomas Cromwell and William Marshall's Protestant books". The Historical Journal 47.3 (2004): 517-539. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/thomas-cromwell-and-william-marshalls-protestant-books/3B05EA4539D100486353138B7AFB42CE online]
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35. ^{{cite web|url=http://ibdb.com/person.php?id=483085|title=Ben Miles profile|publisher=IBDb.com|accessdate=17 November 2015}}
36. ^{{cite web| url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0060665/fullcredits?ref_=tt_ov_st_sm| title = A Man for All Seasons, full cast| accessdate = 28 October 2014| publisher = Internet Movie Database}}
37. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-21712688|title=Mark Rylance set for Hilary Mantel TV drama|publisher=BBC News|date=8 March 2012|accessdate=16 February 2015}}