“Trigonometric functions”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions, angle functions or goniometric functions^[2]) are functions of an angle. They relate the angles of a triangle to the lengths of its sides. Trigonometric functions are important in the study of triangles and modeling periodic phenomena, among many other applications.

The most familiar trigonometric functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent. In the context of the standard unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit), where a triangle is formed by a ray starting at the origin and making some angle with the {{mvar|x}}-axis, the sine of the angle gives the {{mvar|y}}-component (the opposite to the angle or the rise) of the triangle, the cosine gives the {{mvar|x}}-component (the adjacent of the angle or the run), and the tangent function gives the slope ({{mvar|y}}-component divided by the {{mvar|x}}-component). For angles less than a right angle, trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle containing the angle, and their values can be found in the lengths of various line segments around a unit circle. Modern definitions express trigonometric functions as infinite series or as solutions of certain differential equations, allowing the extension of the arguments to the whole number line and to the complex numbers.

Trigonometric functions have a wide range of uses including computing unknown lengths and angles in triangles (often right triangles). In this use, trigonometric functions are used, for instance, in navigation, engineering, and physics. A common use in elementary physics is resolving a vector into Cartesian coordinates. The sine and cosine functions are also commonly used to model periodic function phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day length, and average temperature variations through the year.

In modern usage, there are six basic trigonometric functions, tabulated here with equations that relate them to one another. Especially with the last four, these relations are often taken as the definitions of those functions, but one can define them equally well geometrically, or by other means, and then derive these relations.

Right-angled triangle definitions

The notion that there should be some standard correspondence between the lengths of the sides of a triangle and the angles of the triangle comes as soon as one recognizes that similar triangles maintain the same ratios between their sides. That is, for any similar triangle the ratio of the hypotenuse (for example) and another of the sides remains the same. If the hypotenuse is twice as long, so are the sides. It is these ratios that the trigonometric functions express.

To define the trigonometric functions for the angle A, start with any right triangle that contains the angle A. The three sides of the triangle are named as follows:

In ordinary Euclidean geometry, according to the triangle postulate, the inside angles of every triangle total 180° ({{pi}} radians). Therefore, in a right-angled triangle, the two non-right angles total 90° ({{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}} radians), so each of these angles must be in the range of {{math|(0, {{sfrac|{{Pi}}|2}})}} as expressed in interval notation. The following definitions apply to angles in this {{math|(0, {{sfrac|{{Pi}}|2}})}} range. They can be extended to the full set of real arguments by using the unit circle, or by requiring certain symmetries and that they be periodic functions. For example, the figure shows {{math|sin(θ)}} for angles {{mvar|θ}}, {{math|{{pi}} − θ}}, {{math|{{pi}} + θ}}, and {{math|2{{pi}} − θ}} depicted on the unit circle (top) and as a graph (bottom). The value of the sine repeats itself apart from sign in all four quadrants, and if the range of {{mvar|θ}} is extended to additional rotations, this behavior repeats periodically with a period 2{{pi}}.

The trigonometric functions are summarized in the following table and described in more detail below. The angle {{mvar|θ}} is the angle between the hypotenuse and the adjacent line – the angle at A in the accompanying diagram.

Sine, cosine, and tangent

These ratios do not depend on the size of the particular right triangle chosen, as long as the focus angle is equal, since all such triangles are similar.

The acronyms "SOH-CAH-TOA" ("soak-a-toe", "sock-a-toa", "so-kah-toa") and "OHSAHCOAT" are commonly used trigonometric mnemonics for these ratios.

Secant, cosecant, and cotangent

The remaining three functions are best defined using the three functions above and can be considered their reciprocals.

Mnemonics

Equivalent to the right-triangle definitions, the trigonometric functions can also be defined in terms of the rise, run, and slope of a line segment relative to horizontal. The slope is commonly taught as "rise over run" or {{sfrac|rise|run}}. The three main trigonometric functions are commonly taught in the order sine, cosine and tangent. With a line segment length of 1 (as in a unit circle), the following mnemonic devices show the correspondence of definitions:

This shows the main use of tangent and arctangent: converting between the two ways of telling the slant of a line, i.e. angles and slopes. (The arctangent or "inverse tangent" is not to be confused with the cotangent, which is cosine divided by sine.)

While the length of the line segment makes no difference for the slope (the slope does not depend on the length of the slanted line), it does affect rise and run. To adjust and find the actual rise and run when the line does not have a length of 1, just multiply the sine and cosine by the line length. For instance, if the line segment has length 5, the run at an angle of 7° is 5cos(7°).

Unit-circle definitions

The six trigonometric functions can be defined as coordinate values of points on the Euclidean plane that are related to the unit circle, which is the circle of radius one centered at the origin {{math|O}} of this coordinate system. While right-angled triangle definitions permit the definition of the trigonometric functions for angles between {{math|0}} and

radian {{math|(90°),}} the unit circle definitions allow to extend the domain of the trigonometric functions to all positive and negative real numbers.

Rotating a ray from the direction of the positive half of the x-axis by an angle {{mvar|θ}} (counterclockwise for

and clockwise for

) yields intersection points of this ray (see the figure) with the unit {{nowrap|circle:

,}} and, by extending the ray to a line if necessary, with the {{nowrap|line

}} and with the {{nowrap|line

}} The tangent line to the unit circle in point {{math|A}}, which is orthogonal to this ray, intersects the y- and x-axis in points

and

. The coordinate values of these points give all the existing values of the trigonometric functions for arbitrary real values of {{mvar|θ}} in the following manner.

The trigonometric functions {{math|cos}} and {{math|sin}} are defined, respectively, as the x- and y-coordinate values of point {{math|A}}, i.e.,

In the range

this definition coincides with the right-angled triangle definition by taking the right-angled triangle to have the unit radius {{math|OA}} as hypotenuse, and since for all points

on the unit circle the equation

holds, this definition of cosine and sine also satisfies the Pythagorean identity

By applying the Pythagorean identity and geometric proof methods, these definitions can readily be shown to coincide with the definitions of tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine, that is

As a rotation of an angle of

does not change the position or size of a shape, the points {{math|A}}, {{math|B}}, {{math|C}}, {{math|D}}, and {{math|E}} are the same for two angles whose difference is an integer multiple of

. Thus trigonometric functions are periodic functions with period

. That is, the equalities

hold for any angle {{mvar|θ}} and any integer {{mvar|k}}. The same is true for the four other trigonometric functions. Observing the sign and the monotonicity of the functions sine, cosine, cosecant, and secant in the four quadrants, shows that {{math|2{{pi}}}} is the smallest value for which they are periodic, i.e., {{math|2{{pi}}}} is the fundamental period of these functions. However, already after a rotation by an angle

the points {{mvar|B}} and {{mvar|C}} return to their original position, so that the tangent function and the cotangent function have a fundamental period of {{pi}}. That is, the equalities

Algebraic values

The algebraic expressions for {{math|sin(0°), sin(30°), sin(45°), sin(60°)}} and {{math|sin(90°)}} are

respectively. Writing the numerators as square roots of consecutive natural numbers (

) provides an easy way to remember the values.^[9]

Such simple expressions generally do not exist for other angles which are rational multiples of a straight angle.

For an angle which, measured in degrees, is a multiple of three, the sine and the cosine may be expressed in terms of square roots, as shown below. These values of the sine and the cosine may thus be constructed by ruler and compass.

For an angle of an integer number of degrees, the sine and the cosine may be expressed in terms of square roots and the cube root of a non-real complex number. Galois theory allows proof that, if the angle is not a multiple of 3°, non-real cube roots are unavoidable.

For an angle which, measured in degrees, is a rational number, the sine and the cosine are algebraic numbers, which may be expressed in terms of {{mvar|n}}th roots. This results from the fact that the Galois groups of the cyclotomic polynomials are cyclic.

For an angle which, measured in degrees, is not a rational number, then either the angle or both the sine and the cosine are transcendental numbers. This is a corollary of Baker's theorem, proved in 1966.

Explicit values

From these, the algebraic expressions for all multiples of 3° can be computed. For example:

Algebraic expressions can be deduced for other angles of an integer number of degrees, for example,

where {{math|z {{=}} a + ib}}, and {{math|a}} and {{math|b}} are the above algebraic expressions for, respectively, {{math|cos 3°}} and {{math|sin 3°}}, and the principal cube root (that is, the cube root with the largest real part) is to be taken.

Series definitions

Trigonometric functions are analytic functions. Using only geometry and properties of limits, it can be shown that the derivative of sine is cosine and the derivative of cosine is the negative of sine. One can then use the theory of Taylor series to show that the following identities hold for all real numbers {{mvar|x}}.^[6] Here, and generally in calculus, all angles are measured in radians.

The infinite series appearing in these identities are convergent in the whole complex plane and are often taken as the definitions of the sine and cosine functions of a complex variable. Another standard (and equivalent) definition of the sine and the cosine as functions of a complex variable is through their differential equation, below.

When the series for the tangent and secant functions are expressed in a form in which the denominators are the corresponding factorials, the numerators, called the "tangent numbers" and "secant numbers" respectively, have a combinatorial interpretation: they enumerate alternating permutations of finite sets, of odd cardinality for the tangent series and even cardinality for the secant series.^[8] The series itself can be found by a power series solution of the aforementioned differential equation.

From a theorem in complex analysis, there is a unique analytic continuation of this real function to the domain of complex numbers. They have the same Taylor series, and so the trigonometric functions are defined on the complex numbers using the Taylor series above.

There is a series representation as partial fraction expansion where just translated reciprocal functions are summed up, such that the poles of the cotangent function and the reciprocal functions match:^[13]

Combining the {{math|(–n)}}th with the {{math|n}}th term lead to absolutely convergent series:

Relationship to exponential function and complex numbers

It can be shown from the series definitions^[9] that the sine and cosine functions are respectively the imaginary and real parts of the exponential function of a purely imaginary argument. That is, if {{mvar|x}} is real, we have

The latter identity, although primarily established for real {{mvar|x}}, remains valid for every complex {{mvar|x}}, and is called Euler's formula.

Euler's formula can be used to derive most trigonometric identities from the properties of the exponential function, by writing sine and cosine as:

It is also sometimes useful to express the complex sine and cosine functions in terms of the real and imaginary parts of their arguments.

This exhibits a deep relationship between the complex sine and cosine functions and their real (sin, cos) and hyperbolic real (sinh, cosh) counterparts.

Complex graphs

In the following graphs the domain is the complex plane pictured with domain coloring, and the range values are indicated at each point by color. Brightness indicates the size (absolute value) of the range value, with black being zero. Hue varies with argument, or angle, measured from the positive real axis.

Definitions via differential equations

That is to say, each is the additive inverse of its own second derivative. Within the 2-dimensional function space {{mvar|V}} consisting of all solutions of this equation,

Since the sine and cosine functions are linearly independent, together they form a basis of {{mvar|V}}. This method of defining the sine and cosine functions is essentially equivalent to using Euler's formula. (See linear differential equation.) It turns out that this differential equation can be used not only to define the sine and cosine functions but also to prove the trigonometric identities for the sine and cosine functions.

Further, the observation that sine and cosine satisfies {{math|y″ {{=}} −y}} means that they are eigenfunctions of the second-derivative operator.

The tangent function is the unique solution of the nonlinear differential equation

satisfying the initial condition {{math|y(0) {{=}} 0}}. There is a very interesting visual proof that the tangent function satisfies this differential equation.^[16]

The significance of radians

Radians specify an angle by measuring the length around the path of the unit circle and constitute a special argument to the sine and cosine functions. In particular, only sines and cosines that map radians to ratios satisfy the differential equations that classically describe them. If an argument to sine or cosine in radians is scaled by frequency,

Here, {{mvar|k}} is a constant that represents a mapping between units. If {{mvar|x}} is in degrees, then

This means that the second derivative of a sine in degrees does not satisfy the differential equation

This means that these sines and cosines are different functions, and that the fourth derivative of sine will be sine again only if the argument is in radians.

Identities

Many identities interrelate the trigonometric functions. Among the most frequently used is the Pythagorean identity, which states that for any angle, the square of the sine plus the square of the cosine is 1. This is easy to see by studying a right triangle of hypotenuse 1 and applying the Pythagorean theorem. In symbolic form, the Pythagorean identity is written

Other key relationships are the sum and difference formulas, which give the sine and cosine of the sum and difference of two angles in terms of sines and cosines of the angles themselves. These can be derived geometrically, using arguments that date to Ptolemy. One can also produce them algebraically using Euler's formula.

When the two angles are equal, the sum formulas reduce to simpler equations known as the double-angle formulae.

These identities can also be used to derive the product-to-sum identities that were used in antiquity to transform the product of two numbers into a sum of numbers and greatly speed operations, much like the logarithm function.

Calculus

For integrals and derivatives of trigonometric functions, see the relevant sections of Differentiation of trigonometric functions, Lists of integrals and List of integrals of trigonometric functions. Below is the list of the derivatives and integrals of the six basic trigonometric functions. The number {{mvar|C}} is a constant of integration.

Definitions using functional equations

In mathematical analysis, one can define the trigonometric functions using functional equations based on properties like the difference formula. Taking as given these formulas, one can prove that only two continuous functions satisfy those conditions. Formally, there exists exactly one pair of continuous functions—sin and cos—such that for all real numbers {{mvar|x}} and {{mvar|y}}, the following equation holds:^[17]

This may also be used for extending sine and cosine to the complex numbers. Other functional equations are also possible for defining trigonometric functions.

Computation

The computation of trigonometric functions is a complicated subject, which can today be avoided by most people because of the widespread availability of computers and scientific calculators that provide built-in trigonometric functions for any angle. This section, however, describes details of their computation in three important contexts: the historical use of trigonometric tables, the modern techniques used by computers, and a few "important" angles where simple exact values are easily found.

The first step in computing any trigonometric function is range reduction—reducing the given angle to a "reduced angle" inside a small range of angles, say 0 to {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}, using the periodicity and symmetries of the trigonometric functions.

Prior to computers, people typically evaluated trigonometric functions by interpolating from a detailed table of their values, calculated to many significant figures. Such tables have been available for as long as trigonometric functions have been described (see History below), and were typically generated by repeated application of the half-angle and angle-addition identities starting from a known value (such as sin({{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}) = 1).

Modern computers use a variety of techniques.^[10] One common method, especially on higher-end processors with floating point units, is to combine a polynomial or rational approximation (such as Chebyshev approximation, best uniform approximation, and Padé approximation, and typically for higher or variable precisions, Taylor and Laurent series) with range reduction and a table lookup—they first look up the closest angle in a small table, and then use the polynomial to compute the correction.^[11] Devices that lack hardware multipliers often use an algorithm called CORDIC (as well as related techniques), which uses only addition, subtraction, bitshift, and table lookup. These methods are commonly implemented in hardware floating-point units for performance reasons.

For very high precision calculations, when series expansion convergence becomes too slow, trigonometric functions can be approximated by the arithmetic-geometric mean, which itself approximates the trigonometric function by the (complex) elliptic integral.^[20]

Finally, for some simple angles, the values can be easily computed by hand using the Pythagorean theorem, as in the following examples. For example, the sine, cosine and tangent of any integer multiple of {{sfrac|{{pi}}|60}} radians (3°) can be found exactly by hand.

Consider a right triangle where the two other angles are equal, and therefore are both {{sfrac|{{pi}}|4}} radians (45°). Then the length of side {{mvar|b}} and the length of side {{mvar|a}} are equal; we can choose {{math|1=a = b = 1}}. The values of sine, cosine and tangent of an angle of {{sfrac|{{pi}}|4}} radians (45°) can then be found using the Pythagorean theorem:

To determine the trigonometric functions for angles of {{sfrac|{{pi}}|3}} radians (60°) and {{sfrac|{{pi}}|6}} radians (30°), we start with an equilateral triangle of side length 1. All its angles are {{sfrac|{{pi}}|3}} radians (60°). By dividing it into two, we obtain a right triangle with {{sfrac|{{pi}}|6}} radians (30°) and {{sfrac|{{pi}}|3}} radians (60°) angles. For this triangle, the shortest side is {{sfrac|1|2}}, the next largest side is {{sfrac|{{sqrt|3}}|2}} and the hypotenuse is 1. This yields:

Special values in trigonometric functions

There are some commonly used special values in trigonometric functions, as shown in the following table.

The symbol {{math|∞}} here represents the point at infinity on the projectively extended real line, the limit on the extended real line is {{math|+∞}} on one side and {{math|-∞}} on the other.

Inverse functions

The trigonometric functions are periodic, and hence not injective, so strictly they do not have an inverse function. Therefore, to define an inverse function we must restrict their domains so that the trigonometric function is bijective. In the following, the functions on the left are defined by the equation on the right; these are not proved identities. The principal inverses are usually defined as:

The notations sin⁻¹ and cos⁻¹ are often used for arcsin and arccos, etc. When this notation is used, the inverse functions could be confused with the multiplicative inverses of the functions. The notation using the "arc-" prefix avoids such confusion, though "arcsec" for arcsecant can be confused with "arcsecond".

Just like the sine and cosine, the inverse trigonometric functions can also be defined in terms of infinite series. For example,

These functions may also be defined by proving that they are antiderivatives of other functions. The arcsine, for example, can be written as the following integral:

Analogous formulas for the other functions can be found at inverse trigonometric functions. Using the complex logarithm, one can generalize all these functions to complex arguments:

Connection to the inner product

In an inner product space, the angle between two non-zero vectors is defined to be

Properties and applications

The trigonometric functions, as the name suggests, are of crucial importance in trigonometry, mainly because of the following two results.

Law of sines

The law of sines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides {{mvar|a}}, {{mvar|b}}, and {{mvar|c}} and angles opposite those sides {{mvar|A}}, {{mvar|B}} and {{mvar|C}}:

It can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the above definition of sine. The law of sines is useful for computing the lengths of the unknown sides in a triangle if two angles and one side are known. This is a common situation occurring in triangulation, a technique to determine unknown distances by measuring two angles and an accessible enclosed distance.

Law of cosines

The law of cosines (also known as the cosine formula or cosine rule) is an extension of the Pythagorean theorem:

In this formula the angle at {{mvar|C}} is opposite to the side {{mvar|c}}. This theorem can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the Pythagorean theorem.

The law of cosines can be used to determine a side of a triangle if two sides and the angle between them are known. It can also be used to find the cosines of an angle (and consequently the angles themselves) if the lengths of all the sides are known.

Law of tangents

The explanation of the formulae in words would be cumbersome, but the patterns of sums and differences, for the lengths and corresponding opposite angles, are apparent in the theorem.

Law of cotangents

In words the theorem is: the cotangent of a half-angle equals the ratio of the semi-perimeter minus the opposite side to the said angle, to the inradius for the triangle.

Periodic functions

The trigonometric functions are also important in physics. The sine and the cosine functions, for example, are used to describe simple harmonic motion, which models many natural phenomena, such as the movement of a mass attached to a spring and, for small angles, the pendular motion of a mass hanging by a string. The sine and cosine functions are one-dimensional projections of uniform circular motion.

Trigonometric functions also prove to be useful in the study of general periodic functions. The characteristic wave patterns of periodic functions are useful for modeling recurring phenomena such as sound or light waves.^[24]

Under rather general conditions, a periodic function {{math|f(x)}} can be expressed as a sum of sine waves or cosine waves in a Fourier series.^[25] Denoting the sine or cosine basis functions by {{mvar|φ_k}}, the expansion of the periodic function {{math|f(t)}} takes the form:

In the animation of a square wave at top right it can be seen that just a few terms already produce a fairly good approximation. The superposition of several terms in the expansion of a sawtooth wave are shown underneath.

History

While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180–125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 CE).

The functions sine and cosine can be traced to the jyā and koti-jyā functions used in Gupta period Indian astronomy (Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.^[26]

All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles.^[27] al-Khwārizmī produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents.

They were studied by authors including Omar Khayyám, Bhāskara II, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Jamshīd al-Kāshī (14th century), Ulugh Beg (14th century), Regiomontanus (1464), Rheticus, and Rheticus' student Valentinus Otho.

The terms tangent and secant were first introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fincke in his book Geometria rotundi (1583).^[29]

The first published use of the abbreviations sin, cos, and tan is probably by the 16th century French mathematician Albert Girard.{{fact|date=April 2018}}

In a paper published in 1682, Leibniz proved that {{math|sin x}} is not an algebraic function of {{mvar|x}}.^[30]

A few functions were common historically, but are now seldom used, such as the chord ({{math|1=crd(θ) = 2 sin({{sfrac|θ|2}})}}), the versine ({{math|1=versin(θ) = 1 − cos(θ) = 2 sin²({{sfrac|θ|2}})}}) (which appeared in the earliest tables^[26]), the coversine ({{math|1=coversin(θ) = 1 − sin(θ) = versin({{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}-θ)}}), the haversine ({{math|1=haversin(θ) = {{sfrac|1|2}}versin(θ) = sin²({{sfrac|θ|2}})}}),^[13] the exsecant ({{math|1=exsec(θ) = sec(θ) − 1}}), and the excosecant ({{math|1=excsc(θ) = exsec({{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}} − θ) = csc(θ) − 1}}). See List of trigonometric identities for more relations between these functions.

Etymology

The word sine derives^[14] from Latin sinus, meaning "bend; bay", and more specifically "the hanging fold of the upper part of a toga", "the bosom of a garment", which was chosen as the translation of what was interpreted as the Arabic word jaib, meaning "pocket" or "fold" in the twelfth-century translations of works by Al-Battani and al-Khwārizmī into Medieval Latin.^[15]

The choice was based on a misreading of the Arabic written form j-y-b ({{lang|ar|جيب}}), which itself originated as a transliteration from Sanskrit {{IAST|jīvā}}, which along with its synonym {{IAST|jyā}} (the standard Sanskrit term for the sine) translates to "bowstring", being in turn adopted from Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|χορδή}} "string".^[36]

The word tangent comes from Latin tangens meaning "touching", since the line touches the circle of unit radius, whereas secant stems from Latin secans—"cutting"—since the line cuts the circle.^[16]

The prefix "co-" (in "cosine", "cotangent", "cosecant") is found in Edmund Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which defines the cosinus as an abbreviation for the sinus complementi (sine of the complementary angle) and proceeds to define the cotangens similarly.^[38]^[39]

See also

Notes

1. ^Oxford English Dictionary, sine, n.²
2. ^Oxford English Dictionary, cosine, n.
3. ^Oxford English Dictionary, tangent, adj. and n.
4. ^Oxford English Dictionary, secant, adj. and n.
5. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Trigonometric_functions|title=Trigonometric Functions|last=Bityutskov|first=V.I.|date=2011-02-07|website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229231821/https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Trigonometric_functions|archive-date=2017-12-29|dead-url=no|access-date=2017-12-29|df=}}
6. ^See Ahlfors, pages 43–44.
7. ^Abramowitz; Weisstein.
8. ^Stanley, Enumerative Combinatorics, Vol I., page 149
9. ^For a demonstration, see Euler's formula#Using power series
10. ^Kantabutra.
11. ^However, doing that while maintaining precision is nontrivial, and methods like Gal's accurate tables, Cody and Waite reduction, and Payne and Hanek reduction algorithms can be used.
12. ^Abramowitz, Milton and Irene A. Stegun, p.74
13. ^{{harvtxt|Nielsen|1966|pp=xxiii–xxiv}}
14. ^The anglicized form is first recorded in 1593 in Thomas Fale's Horologiographia, the Art of Dialling.
15. ^Various sources credit the first use of sinus to either * Plato Tiburtinus's 1116 translation of the Astronomy of Al-Battani* Gerard of Cremona's translation of the Algebra of al-Khwārizmī* Robert of Chester's 1145 translation of the tables of al-KhwārizmīSee Merlet, [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/1-4020-2204-2_16#page-1 A Note on the History of the Trigonometric Functions] in Ceccarelli (ed.), International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, Springer, 2004
See Maor (1998), chapter 3, for an earlier etymology crediting Gerard.
See {{cite book |last=Katx |first=Victor |date=July 2008 |title=A history of mathematics |edition=3rd |location=Boston |publisher=Pearson |page=210 (sidebar) |isbn= 978-0321387004 |language=English }}
16. ^Oxford English Dictionary
17. ^¹{{cite book |title=Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint: Arithmetic, Algebra, Analysis |author-first=Christian Felix |author-last=Klein |author-link=Christian Felix Klein |date=2004 |orig-year=1932 |edition=Translation of 3rd German |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc. / The Macmillan Company |translator-first1=E. R. |translator-last1=Hedrick |translator-first2=C. A. |translator-last2=Noble |isbn=978-0-48643480-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KuoxgykfbkC |access-date=2017-08-13 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215144848/https://books.google.com/books?id=8KuoxgykfbkC |archivedate=2018-02-15 |df= }}
18. ^¹Heng, Cheng and Talbert, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZoxLiJBwOUC&pg=PA228 "Additional Mathematics"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320011115/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZoxLiJBwOUC&pg=PA228 |date=2015-03-20 }}, page 228
19. ^¹{{cite book |title=Trigonometry |edition=9th |first1=Ron |last1=Larson |publisher=Cengage Learning |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-285-60718-4 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zbgWAAAAQBAJ |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215144848/https://books.google.com/books?id=zbgWAAAAQBAJ |archivedate=2018-02-15 |df= }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=zbgWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 Extract of page 153] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215144848/https://books.google.com/books?id=zbgWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 |date=2018-02-15 }}
20. ^¹{{cite book |author-last1=Aigner |author-first1=Martin |author1-link=Martin Aigner |author-last2=Ziegler |author-first2=Günter M. |author-link2=Günter Ziegler |title=Proofs from THE BOOK |publisher=Springer-Verlag |edition=Second |date=2000 |isbn=978-3-642-00855-9 |page=149 |url=https://www.springer.com/mathematics/book/978-3-642-00855-9 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308034453/http://www.springer.com/mathematics/book/978-3-642-00855-9 |archivedate=2014-03-08 |df= }}
21. ^¹{{cite book |title=Theory of complex functions |author-first1=Reinhold |author-last1=Remmert |publisher=Springer |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-387-97195-7 |page=327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CC0dQxtYb6kC |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320010718/http://books.google.com/books?id=CC0dQxtYb6kC |archivedate=2015-03-20 |df= }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=CC0dQxtYb6kC&pg=PA327 Extract of page 327] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320010448/http://books.google.com/books?id=CC0dQxtYb6kC&pg=PA327 |date=2015-03-20 }}
22. ^¹{{cite book |isbn=978-0-19-853446-4 |title=Visual Complex Analysis |author-last=Needham |author-first=Tristan|year=1998 }}
23. ^¹{{cite book |author-last=Kannappan |author-first=Palaniappan |title=Functional Equations and Inequalities with Applications |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0387894911}}
24. ^¹{{Cite journal |author-last=Brent |author-first=Richard P. |date=April 1976 |title=Fast Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions |journal=J. ACM |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=242–251 |doi=10.1145/321941.321944 |issn=0004-5411}}
25. ^¹²The Universal Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Pan Reference Books, 1976, page 529-530. English version George Allen and Unwin, 1964. Translated from the German version Meyers Rechenduden, 1960.
26. ^¹{{cite book |title=Partial differential equations for scientists and engineers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLUYeSb49eAC&pg=PA82 |author-first=Stanley J. |author-last=Farlow |page=82 |isbn=978-0-486-67620-3 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |edition=Reprint of Wiley 1982 |date=1993 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320011420/http://books.google.com/books?id=DLUYeSb49eAC&pg=PA82 |archivedate=2015-03-20 |df= }}
27. ^¹See for example, {{cite book |author-first=Gerald B. |author-last=Folland |title=Fourier Analysis and its Applications |publisher=American Mathematical Society |edition=Reprint of Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole 1992 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idAomhpwI8MC&pg=PA77 |pages=77ff |chapter=Convergence and completeness |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-8218-4790-9 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319230954/http://books.google.com/books?id=idAomhpwI8MC&pg=PA77 |archivedate=2015-03-19 |df= }}
28. ^¹²³Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. {{isbn|0-471-54397-7}}, p. 210.
29. ^¹{{cite journal |title=Islamic Astronomy |author-first=Owen |author-last=Gingerich |publisher=Scientific American |date=1986 |volume=254 |page=74 |url=http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/PHYS/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic_astronomy.htm |access-date=2010-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019140821/http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/PHYS/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic_astronomy.htm |archive-date=2013-10-19}}
30. ^¹{{cite web |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland |title=Madhava of Sangamagrama |author-first1=J. J. |author-last1=O'Connor |author-first2=E. F. |author-last2=Robertson |url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Madhava.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514012903/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Madhava.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2006-05-14 |access-date=2007-09-08 }}
31. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Fincke.html |title=Fincke biography |access-date=2017-03-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107035144/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Fincke.html |archivedate=2017-01-07 |df= }}
32. ^¹{{cite book |title=Elements of the History of Mathematics |author-first=Nicolás |author-last=Bourbaki |publisher=Springer |date=1994}}
33. ^¹{{cite book |author-first=Edmund |author-last=Gunter |author-link=Edmund Gunter |title=Canon triangulorum |date=1620}}
34. ^¹{{cite web |title=A reconstruction of Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620) |editor-first=Denis |editor-last=Roegel |type=Research report |publisher=HAL |date=2010-12-06 |id=inria-00543938 |url=https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00543938/document |access-date=2017-07-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728192238/https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00543938/document |archive-date=2017-07-28}}
35. ^¹See Plofker, Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 257
See {{cite web |url=http://www.clarku.edu/~djoyce/trig/ |title=Clark University |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615133310/http://www.clarku.edu/~djoyce/trig/ |archivedate=2008-06-15 |df= }}
See Maor (1998), chapter 3, regarding the etymology.