“Violence against men”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Studies of social attitudes show violence is perceived as more or less serious depending on the gender of victim and perpetrator.^[9]^[10]^[11] According to a study in the publication Aggressive Behavior, violence against women was about a third more likely to be reported by third parties to the police regardless of the gender of the attacker,^[12] although the most likely to be reported gender combination was a male perpetrator and female victim.^[12] The use of stereotypes by law enforcement is a recognised issue,^[13] and international law scholar Solange Mouthaan argues that, in conflict scenarios, sexual violence against men has been ignored in favor of a focus on sexual violence against women and children.^[14] One explanation for this difference in focus is the physical power that men hold over women making people more likely to condemn violence with this gender configuration.^[15] The concept of male survivors of violence go against social perceptions of the male gender role, leading to low recognition and few legal provisions.^[16] Often there is no legal framework for a woman to be prosecuted when committing violent offenses against a man.^[17]

Writing for TIME, Cathy Young criticised the feminist movement for not doing enough to challenge double standards in the treatment of male victims of physical abuse and sexual assault.^[19]

Domestic violence

In 2013 editor-in-chief of the journal Partner Abuse, John Hamel,^[20] set up the Domestic Violence Research Group to create the "Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project (PASK)".^[21] PASK found parity in rates of both perpetration and victimisation for men and women.^[22]

Men who are victims of domestic violence are at times reluctant to report it or to seek help. According to some commentators there is also a paradigm that only males perpetrate domestic violence and are never victims.^[23] Shamita Das Dasgupta and Erin Pizzey are amongst those who argue that, as with other forms of violence against men, intimate partner violence is generally less recognized in society when the victims are men.^[24]^[25] Violence of women against men in relationships is often 'trivialized'^[3]^[26]^[27] due to the supposed weaker physique of women; in such cases the use of dangerous objects and weapons is omitted.^[3] Research since the 1990s has identified issues of perceived and actual bias when police are involved, with the male victim being negated even whilst injured.^[28]

Female violence against men

According to the journalist Martin Daubney "...there remains a theory that men under report their experiences [of violence by women against men] due to a culture of masculine expectations.^[29] The official figure in the United Kingdom, for example, is about 50% of the number of acts of violence by men against women, but there are indications that only about 10% of male victims of female violence report the incidents to the authorities, mainly due to taboos and fears of misunderstanding created by a culture of masculine expectations.^[30] By comparison 1.9 million people aged 16–59 told the Crime Survey for England and Wales (year ending March 2017), that they were victims of domestic violence and 79% did not report their partner or ex-partner. Of the 1.9 million, approximately 1.2 million were female and 713,000 were male.^[31] A Canadian report found that men were 22% more likely to report being victims of spousal violence in their current relationship than women.^[30]^[32] Researchers Stemple and Meyer report that sexual violence by women against men is often understudied or unrecognized.^[33]

Forced circumcision

Non-therapeutic male circumcision is considered, by several groups, to be a form of violence against young men and boys.^[34]^[35] The International Criminal Court considers forced circumcision to be an "inhumane act".^[34] Some court decisions have found it to be a violation of a child's rights.^[36] In certain countries, such as Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Turkey and the United States, newborn baby males are routinely circumcised without the child's consent.^[37]^[38] As well, the Jewish and Muslim faiths circumcise boys at a young age.^[39] It is also practiced in Coptic Christianity and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.^[38]^[40]

Any cutting whatsoever of a female's genitals, also known as female genital mutilation, has been banned in most Western countries, starting in Sweden in 1982 and the United States in 1997.^[41] When Sweden outlawed it in 1982, it became the first Western country to do so.^[42]{{rp|611}} Several former colonial powers, including Belgium, Britain, France and the Netherlands, followed suit, either with new laws or by making clear that it was covered by existing legislation.^[43]^[44]^[45]

Although a 2012 court ruling in Germany put the practice of male cutting under question, calling circumcision "grievous bodily harm," the German parliament passed a law to keep circumcision of boys legal.^[46] As of 2016, cutting of boys' foreskins is still legal worldwide.^[37]

Mass killings

In situations of structural violence that include war and genocide, men and boys are frequently singled out and killed.^[47] The murder of targets by sex during the Kosovo War, estimates of civilian male victims of mass killings suggest that they made up more than 90% of all civilian casualties.^[47]

Non-combatant men and boys have been and continue to be the most frequent targets of mass killing and genocidal slaughter, as well as a host of lesser atrocities and abuses.^[48] Gendercide Watch, an independent human rights group, documents multiple gendercides aimed at males (adult and children): The Anfal Campaign,^[49]

(Iraqi Kurdistan), 1988 – Armenian Genocide^[50] (1915–17) – Rwanda, 1994.^[51] Forced conscription can also be considered gender-based violence against men.^[52]

Sexual violence

In armed conflict, sexual violence is committed by men against men as psychological warfare in order to demoralize the enemy.^[53] The practice is ancient, and was recorded as taking place during the Crusades.^[54] Castration is used as a means of physical torture with strong psychological effects, namely the loss of the ability to procreate and the loss of the status of a full man.^[54] International criminal law does not consider gender based sexual violence against men a separate type of offense and treats it as war crimes or torture.^[55] The culture of silence around this issue often leaves men with no support.^[56]

In 2012, a UNHCR report stated that "SGBV (sexual and gender based violence) against men and boys has generally been mentioned as a footnote in reports".^[57] In one study, less than 3% of organizations that address rape as a weapon of war, mention men or provide services to male victims.^[6]^[8]^[58] It was noted in 1990 that the English language is "bereft of terms and phrases which accurately describe male rape".^[59]

Military conscription and war

Homicide

In the U.S., crime statistics from the 1976 onwards show that men make up the majority of the homicide perpetrators regardless if the victim is female or male. Men are also over-represented as victims in homicide involving both male and female offenders.^[60] According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, women who kill men are most likely to kill acquaintances, spouses or boyfriends while men are more likely to kill strangers.^[61] In many cases, women kill men due to being victims of intimate partner violence,^[62] however it should be noted that this research was conducted on women on death row, a sample size of approximately 97 during the last 100 years.^[63]

See also

References

1. ^{{cite book | last = Felson | first = Richard | title = Violence & gender reexamined | publisher = American Psychological Association | location = Washington, DC | year = 2002 | url = http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2002-17282-000 | page = abstract | isbn = 9781557988959 }}
2. ^{{cite web|title=What is gendercide?|url=http://www.gendercide.org/what_is_gendercide.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch|ref=GendercideWatch1|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6WjCwUMA3?url=http://www.gendercide.org/what_is_gendercide.html|archivedate=2 March 2015|access-date=2 March 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}}
3. ^¹²{{cite news | last = Young | first = Cathy | author-link = Cathy Young | title = The surprising truth about women and violence | url = http://time.com/2921491/hope-solo-women-violence | work = TIME |date=June 25, 2014 | access-date = February 24, 2015 }}
4. ^{{cite news| last = Woolf | first = N. Quentin | title = Our attitude to violence against men is out of date | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/10752232/Our-attitude-to-violence-against-men-is-out-of-date.html | work = The Telegraph | date = 9 April 2014 | access-date = 9 April 2014 }}
5. ^{{cite journal | last = Lewis | first = Dustin | title = Unrecognized victims: sexual violence against men in conflict settings under international law | journal = Wisconsin International Law Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–49 | publisher = University of Wisconsin Law School | ssrn = 1404574 | year = 2009 | url = http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/wisint27&div=3 | ref = harv }} [https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/9823975/Lewis_2009_UnrecognizedVictims.pdf Pdf.]
6. ^¹{{cite conference|last1=DelZotto|first1=Augusta|last2=Jones|first2=Adam|title=Male-on-male sexual violence in wartime: human rights' last taboo?|conference=Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association (ISA)|location=New Orleans, LA|pages=23–27|date=March 2002|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6GXM0FGlT?url=http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|archivedate=11 May 2013|url=http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|access-date=2 March 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}}
7. ^{{cite book |author=United Nations Population Fund |year=2002 |title=Impact of armed conflict on women and girls |url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/impact-armed-conflict-women-and-girls |page=64 }}
8. ^¹{{cite journal |last=Stemple|first=Lara | title = Male rape and human rights | journal = Hastings Law Journal | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 605–647 | publisher = Hastings College of the Law | date = February 2009 | url = https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hastlj60&id=623&collection=journals&index=journals/hastlj | ref = harv }} Pdf.
9. ^{{cite web|last1=Golden|first1=Tom|title=Male Bashing in Mental Health Research|url=http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|website=Men Are Good|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6WjRbju2W?url=http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|archivedate=2 March 2015|access-date=2 March 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}}
10. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Munirkazmi | first1 = Syeda Sana | last2 = Mohyuddin | first2 = Anwaar | title = Violence against men (a case study of Naiabaadichaakra, Rawalpindi) | journal = International Journal of Environment, Ecology, Family and Urban Studies (IJEEFUS) | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–10 | publisher = Trans Stellar | date = December 2012 | url = http://www.tjprc.org/publishpapers/--1354635512-1.%20Merged%20formatting%20files%20-Env%20eco.pdf | ref = harv }}
11. ^{{cite journal | last = Feather | first = Norm T. | title = Domestic violence, gender, and perceptions of justice | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 35 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 507–519 | publisher = Springer | doi = 10.1007/BF01544134 | date = October 1996 | ref = harv }}
12. ^¹{{cite journal | last1 = Felson | first1 = Richard B. | last2 = Feld | first2 = Scott L. | author-link1 = Richard Felson | title = When a man hits a woman: moral evaluations and reporting violence to the police | journal = Aggressive Behavior | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–488 | publisher = Wiley | doi = 10.1002/ab.20323 | pmid = 19746441 | date = November–December 2009 | ref = harv }}
13. ^{{cite journal | last = Brown | first = Grant A. | title = Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners | journal = Sexuality and Culture | volume = 8 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 3–139 | publisher = Springer | doi = 10.1007/s12119-004-1000-7 | date = June 2004 | ref = harv }}
14. ^{{cite journal | last = Mouthaan | first = Solange | title = Sexual violence against men and international law – criminalising the unmentionable | journal = International Criminal Law Review | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–695 | publisher = Brill | doi = 10.1163/15718123-01303004 | date = 2013 | ref = harv }}
15. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hamby | first1 = Sherry | last2 = Jackson | first2 = Amy | title = Size does matter: the effects of gender on perceptions of dating violence | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 63 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 324–331 | publisher = Springer | doi = 10.1007/s11199-010-9816-0 | date = September 2010 | ref = harv }}
16. ^{{cite journal |last1=Onyango |first1=Monica Adhiambo |last2=Hampanda |first2=Karen | title = Social constructions of masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence: an analytical review | journal = International Journal of Sexual Health | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 237–247 | publisher = Taylor and Francis | doi = 10.1080/19317611.2011.608415 | date = 2011 | ref = harv }}
17. ^{{cite news|last=S.|first=Sowmya|title=Sexual assault on men: crime that is a reality|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/sexual-assault-on-men-crime-that-is-a-reality/article1-1371605.aspx|work = Hindustan Times|date=July 22, 2015|access-date= August 14, 2015}}
18. ^{{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Gail Erlick | title = Violence and gender reexamined | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 160 | issue = 9 | pages = 1711–1712 | publisher = American Psychiatric Association | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1711 | date = September 2003 | ref = harv }}
19. ^{{cite news|last=Young|first=Cathy|author-link=Cathy Young|title=Sorry, Emma Watson, but HeForShe is rotten for men|url=http://time.com/3432838/emma-watson-feminism-men-women/|work=TIME|date=September 26, 2014|access-date= August 14, 2015}}
20. ^{{cite journal|editor1-last=John|editor1-first=Hamel|title=Partner abuse new directions in research, intervention, and policy|url=http://www.springerpub.com/journals/partner-abuse.html|publisher=Springer|issn=1946-6560}}
21. ^{{cite web|title=About PASK, the Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project |url=http://www.domesticviolenceresearch.org/ |website=domesticviolenceresearch.org |publisher=DV Research}}
22. ^{{cite press release|last = Salem | first = Dara |title=Unprecedented domestic violence study affirms need to recognize male victims |url= http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/5/prweb10741752.htm|publisher=Springer |agency=PRWEB |date=May 21, 2013}}
23. ^{{cite web|last1=Woods|first1=Michael|title=The rhetoric and reality of men and violence|url=http://mhaweb.squarespace.com/storage/files/woods_nmhc_07.pdf|publisher=Men's Health Australia|ref=Woods1|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6WjNlM5FR?url=http://mhaweb.squarespace.com/storage/files/woods_nmhc_07.pdf|archivedate=March 2, 2015|date=October 19, 2007|access-date=December 31, 2016|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}
24. ^{{cite journal | last = Das Dasgupta | first = Shamita | author-link = Shamita Das Dasgupta | title = A framework for understanding women's use of nonlethal violence in intimate heterosexual relationships | journal = Violence Against Women | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = 1364–1389 | publisher = Sage | doi = 10.1177/107780102237408 | date = November 2002 | ref = harv }}
25. ^{{cite book | last = Pizzey | first = Erin | author-link = Erin Pizzey | title = This way to the revolution: a memoir |page=114 | publisher = Peter Owen | location = London Chicago|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-hACBAAAQBAJ | year = 2011 | isbn = 9780720615210 }}
26. ^Schlesinger Buzawa, Eva; Buzawa, Carl G. (2003), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9jCJXOxKXoUC&pg=PA150 Factors affecting police response]", in {{cite book | editor-last1 = Schlesinger Buzawa | editor-first1 = Eva | editor-last2 = Buzawa | editor-first2 = Carl G. |title=Domestic violence: the criminal justice response | publisher= Sage | location = Thousand Oaks, California |isbn=978-0-7619-2448-7 |edition =3rd|page=150| year = 2003 }}:Citing both* {{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = American Behavioral Scientist | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = Sage | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | ref = harv }}:and more recent contradictory research* {{cite book | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Hotaling | first2 = Gerald T. | title = The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report | publisher = National Institute for Justice | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 2000 }}
27. ^Dutton, Donald G. (2011), "[https://books.google.com/books?id=SSJC_usBJ5kC&pg=PA148 The domestic assault of men]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Dutton | editor-first = Donald G. | title = Rethinking domestic violence |page=148 | publisher = UBC Press | location = Vancouver | isbn = 9780774859875 | date = 2011-01-01 }}
28. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = American Behavioral Scientist | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = Sage | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | ref = harv }}
29. ^{{cite news| last = Daubney | first = Martin | author-link = Martin Daubney | title = Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/why-female-violence-against-men-is-societys-last-great-taboo/ | work = The Telegraph | date = 15 March 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}
30. ^¹{{cite news| last = Daubney | first = Martin | author-link = Martin Daubney | title = Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/why-female-violence-against-men-is-societys-last-great-taboo/ | work = The Telegraph | date = 15 March 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}* 1) "...more women than men suffer domestic abuse in Britain (4.5m women versus 2.2m men over the age of 16, according to the ONS [Office for National Statistics])." * 2) "...men are more likely to suffer spousal violence, with 342,000 women and 418,000 men suffering abuse in the preceding five years to 2014."
31. ^{{cite web | last = ONS | author-link = Office for National Statistics | title = Domestic abuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2017 | url = https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2017 | publisher = Crime Survey for England and Wales, Office for National Statistics | year = 2017 | access-date = 5 December 2017 }}
32. ^{{cite web|title=Table 1.2 Victims of self-reported spousal violence within the past 5 years, by sex, 2004, 2009 and 2014|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2016001/article/14303/tbl/tbl1.2-eng.htm|website=Statistics Canada|accessdate=23 March 2017}}
33. ^{{cite news | last = Friedersdorf | first = Conor | title = The understudied female sexual predator | url = https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/11/the-understudied-female-sexual-predator/503492/ | work = The Atlantic | date = November 28, 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}:Citing* {{cite journal | last1 = Stemple | first1 = Lara | last2 = Meyer | first2 = Ilan H. | title = The sexual victimization of men in America: new data challenge old assumptions | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 104 | issue = 6 | pages = e19–e26 | publisher = American Public Health Association | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2014.301946 | pmid = 24825225 | date = 1 June 2014 | ref = harv | pmc=4062022}}
34. ^¹{{cite news | last = Staff writer |title=Plea to ICC over forced male circumcision |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/92564/kenya-plea-icc-over-forced-male-circumcision|work=Irin Analysis|date=24 April 2011 | access-date = 3 July 2016}}
35. ^Other groups* {{cite news | last=Stoffers | first=Carl | title=The Bloodstained Men chop away at infant circumcision | url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/bloodstained-men-chop-circumcision-article-1.2373410 | work=New York Daily News | date=September 24, 2015 | accessdate=September 1, 2016}}* {{cite journal | last1 = Ahlberg | first1 = Beth Maina | last2 = Njoroge | first2 = Kezia Muthoni | title = 'Not men enough to rule!': politicization of ethnicities and forcible circumcision of Luo men during the postelection violence in Kenya | journal = Ethnicity & Health | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 454–468 | publisher = Taylor and Francis | doi = 10.1080/13557858.2013.772326 | pmid = 23758644 | date = 2013 | ref = harv }}* {{cite journal | last = Vojdik | first = Valorie K. | title = Sexual violence against men and women in war: a masculinities approach | journal = Nevada Law Journal, Special Issue: Symposia: 50th Anniversary of Title VII & Sesquicentennial of the Nevada Constitution | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages=923 | publisher = William S. Boyd School of Law | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2271222 | ssrn = 2271222 | date = 2014 | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol14/iss3/15/ | ref = harv }}* {{cite book | url=http://restlessdevelopment.org/file/res-sa-men-and-boys-gbv-oct2014-pdf | title=Men and Boys and Sexual and Gender Based Violence (SGBV) | publisher=Restless Development | location = South Africa | date = October 2014}} Discussions with youth peer educators and staff at Restless Development South Africa: challenges and recommendations.* Poole, Glen (2013), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170828230144/https://equality4men.com/2013/11/03/10-reasons-we-need-a-campaign-to-end-violence-against-men-and-boys/ 10 reasons we need a campaign to end violence against men and boys…]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Poole | editor-first = Glen | title = Equality for men | publisher = Lightworks Publications | location = Blackpool, England | isbn = 9780992790509 }}
36. ^{{cite news | last=Hebblethwaite | first=Cordelia | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19072761 | title=Circumcision, the ultimate parenting dilemma | work=BBC News | date=21 August 2012 | accessdate=September 1, 2016 | location=Washington DC}}
37. ^¹{{cite book | last1 = UNAIDS | last2 = WHO | author-link1 = Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS | author-link2 = World Health Organization |title=Neonatal and child male circumcision: a global review | publisher = UNAIDS and WHO | location = Geneva |url=http://www.who.int/entity/hiv/pub/malecircumcision/neonatal_child_MC_UNAIDS.pdf |year=2010 |isbn=9789291738557}}
38. ^¹{{cite book | last1 = UNAIDS | last2 = WHO | author-link1 = Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS | author-link2 = World Health Organization |title=Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability | publisher = UNAIDS and WHO | location = Geneva |year=2007 |url=http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/jc1360_male_circumcision_en_0.pdf | isbn = 9789241596169}}
39. ^{{cite journal | last = Glass | first = J.M. | title = Religious circumcision: a Jewish view | journal = BJU International | volume = 83 | issue = S1 | pages = 17–21 | publisher = Wiley | doi = 10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1017.x | pmid = 10349410 | date = January 1999 | ref = harv }}
40. ^{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press | location = New York Detroit |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html | isbn = 9780787650155}}
41. ^Laws governing female genital mutilation* Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework", Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.* New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961", New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.* Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation", European Commission.* United States: [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/116 "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation"], Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.* Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code.
42. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Essén | first1 = Birgitta | last2 = Johnsdotter | first2 = Sara | title = Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery | journal = Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica | volume = 83 | issue = 7 | pages = 611–613 | publisher = Wiley | doi = 10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x | pmid = 15225183 | date = July 2004 | ref = harv }}
43. ^{{cite web|url=http://library.college.police.uk/docs/hors/hors238.pdf|title=Tackling racial equality: international comparisons|author=Mary Coussey|date=April 2002}}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.edf.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2006/12/NuffieldReport_final-21.pdf|title=Gender equality, cultural diversity: European comparisons and lessons Moira Dustin|author=Moira Dustin|date=2006}}
45. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/What-Men-Have-to-Do-With-It.pdf|title=What Men Have to Do With It: Public Policies to Promote Gender Equality|date=October 2016}}
46. ^{{cite news | last = Staff writer| title=Circumcision remains legal in Germany | url=http://www.dw.com/en/circumcision-remains-legal-in-germany/a-16399336 | work=DW.COM| publisher = Deutsche Welle | date = December 12, 2012 | accessdate=September 1, 2016}}
47. ^¹{{cite journal | last = Jones | first = Adam | title = Gendercide and genocide | journal = Journal of Genocide Research | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–211 | publisher = Taylor and Francis | doi = 10.1080/713677599 | date = June 2000 | ref = harv }} View online.
48. ^HSR (2005), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rSIrNeFWIfcC&pg=PA111 Assault on the vulnerable]", in {{cite book | editor-last = HSR | title = Human security report 2005: war and peace in the 21st century | page = 111 | publisher = Published for the Human Security Center, University if British Columbia, Canada by Oxford University Press | location = New York Oxford | isbn = 9780195307399 }} Citing Jones (2000), "Gendercide and genocide" p. 186.
49. ^{{cite web|title=Case Study: The Anfal Campaign (Iraqi Kurdistan), 1988|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_anfal.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch}}
50. ^{{cite web|title=Case Study: The Armenian Genocide,1915–17|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_armenia.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch}}
51. ^{{cite web|title=Case Study: Genocide in Rwanda, 1994|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_rwanda.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch}}
52. ^{{cite journal | last = Carpenter | first = R. Charli | title = Recognizing gender-based violence against civilian men and boys in conflict situations | journal = Security Dialogue | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–103 | publisher = Sage | doi = 10.1177/0967010606064139 | date = March 2006 | ref = harv }}
53. ^{{cite news| last = Storr | first = Will |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men?intcmp=239|title=The rape of men: the darkest secret of war|work=The Guardian|date = 17 July 2011 | access-date = 28 February 2015}}
54. ^¹{{cite journal | last = Sivakumaran | first = Sandesh | title = Sexual violence against men in armed conflict | journal = European Journal of International Law | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 253–276 | publisher = Oxford Journals | doi = 10.1093/ejil/chm013 | date = April 2007 | ref = harv }}
55. ^{{cite web|title=The invisibility of gender violence in International Criminal Law – addressing sexual violence against men and women in conflict|url=http://www.transconflict.com/2015/02/the-invisibility-of-gender-violence-in-international-criminal-law-addressing-sexual-violence-against-men-and-women-in-conflict-182/|work=TransConflict|date=February 18, 2015|accessdate=February 18, 2015}}
56. ^{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = HEALTH: Rape as a "weapon of war" against men | work = Irin News | location = Cape Town | url = http://www.irinnews.org/report/93960/health-rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-against-men | date = 13 October 2011 | access-date = 24 February 2015}}
57. ^{{cite press release|date=Oct 8, 2012 |title=UNHCR issues guidelines on protection of male rape victims |url=http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |type=Press release |publisher=UNHCR |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114004503/http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |archivedate=November 14, 2012 |deadurl=unfit }}
58. ^{{cite web|title=Rape as a weapon of war: men suffer, too|url=http://world.time.com/2011/08/03/rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-men-suffer-too/|work=TIME|accessdate=August 3, 2011|date=August 3, 2011}}
59. ^McMullen, Richie (1990), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=KYbaAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=which+accurately+describe The consequences of male rape]", in {{cite book | editor-last = McMullen | editor-first = Richie | title = Male rape: breaking the silence on the last taboo |page=83 | publisher = Gay Men's Press (GMP) | location = London | isbn = 9780854491261 | date = September 1990 }}
60. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htius.pdf#page=48 |title=Homicide trends in the United States|publisher=Bureau of Justice Statistics}}
61. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/wo.pdf | title=Bureau of Justice Statistics – Special Report – Women Offenders | work=Bureau of Justice Statistics | date=December 1999 | accessdate=6 March 2015 | pages=14 | last1=Greenfeld | first1=Lawrence A. | last2=Snell | first2=Tracy L.}}
62. ^{{cite journal | last = Farr | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Aggravating and differentiating factors in the cases of white and minority women on death row | journal = Crime & Delinquency | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 260–278 | publisher = Sage | doi = 10.1177/0011128797043003002 | date = July 1997 | quote=They [women on death row] typically kill people they know, primarily men - most often husbands or lovers in domestic encounters (Mann 1996; Campbell 1993; Silverman et al. 1993; Weisheit 1993; Browne 1987; Goetting 1987; Wilbanks 1983). ... Many female murderers have killed husbands or boyfriends who battered them repeatedly (Gillespie 1989; Browne 1987). | ref = harv | postscript = .}}
63. ^{{cite web | title = Women and the death penalty: facts and figures | url = http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/women-and-death-penalty#facts | website = deathpenaltyinfo.org | publisher = Death Penalty Information Center}}

Perceptions