| 词条 | Two-level game theory |
| 释义 |
Two-level game theory is a political model of international conflict resolution between states derived from game theory and originally introduced in 1988 by Robert Putnam.{{sfnm |1a1=Putnam |1y=1988 |2a1=Williams |2a2=Covarrubias |2y=2009 |2p=275}} Putnam had been involved in research around the G7 summits between 1976 and 1979. However at the fourth summit, held in Bonn in 1978, he observed a qualitative shift in how the negotiations worked. The model views international negotiations between states as consisting of simultaneous negotiations at both the intranational level (i.e. domestic) and the international level (i.e. between governments).{{sfn|Méndez|2017|p=8}} Over domestic negotiations, the chief negotiator absorbs the concern of societal actors and builds coalitions with them; at the international level, the chief negotiator seeks an agreement that is amongst the possible "wins" in his state's "win-set". Win-sets are the possible outcomes that are likely to be accepted by the domestic interest groups who either must ratify the agreement or provide some other form of government backing.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} International agreements occur when there is an overlap between the win-sets of the states involved in the international negotiations.{{sfn|Méndez|2017|pp=8–9}} ReferencesFootnotesBibliography{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}{{cite book |last=Méndez |first=Álvaro |year=2017 |title=Colombian Agency and the Making of US Foreign Policy: Intervention by Invitation |location=Abingdon, England |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-21573-8 |ref=harv }} {{cite journal |last=Putnam |first=Robert D. |author-link=Robert D. Putnam |year=1988 |title=Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games |journal=International Organization |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=427–460 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300027697 |issn=1531-5088 |jstor=2706785 |ref=harv }} {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Matthew A. |last2=Covarrubias |first2=Jack |year=2009 |chapter=Rebalancing America's War on Terror: President Obama |editor1-last=Lansford |editor1-first=Tom |editor2-last=Watson |editor2-first=Robert P. |editor2-link=Robert P. Watson |editor3-last=Covarrubias |editor3-first=Jack |title=America's War on Terror |edition=2nd |location=Farnham, England |publisher=Ashgate |pages=261–282 |isbn=978-0-7546-7787-1 |ref=harv }}{{refend}} Further reading{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Da Conceição-Heldt |first1=Eugénia |author1-link=Eugénia da Conceição-Heldt |last2=Mello |first2=Patrick A. |year=2017 |title=Two-Level Games in Foreign Policy Analysis |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.496 }} {{cite thesis |last=Wilson |first=Ann Conner |year=2010 |title=Putnam's Two-Level Game: Case Studies of Serbian and Russian Reactions to the Kosovar and Chechen Independence Movements |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1274721632 |degree=MA |location=Columbus, Ohio |publisher=Ohio State University |access-date=22 October 2018 }}{{refend}}{{game theory}}{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=October 2018}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}{{polisci-stub}} 4 : Dispute resolution|Game theory|International_relations|Negotiation |
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。