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词条 Universalism
释义

  1. Philosophy

     Universality   Moral universalism  

  2. Secular universalism

  3. Religion

     Bahá'í Faith  Christianity  History  Universalist theology  Mistranslations  Catholicism  Hinduism  Hindu Universalism  Islam  Judaism  Manichaeism  Sikhism  Unitarian Universalism  Zoroastrianism 

  4. Critics

  5. References

  6. Sources

  7. Further reading

  8. External links

{{Other uses|Universalism (disambiguation)}}{{Universalism|expanded=all}}Universalism is a philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability. A community that calls itself universalist may emphasize the universal principles of most religions, and accept others in an inclusive manner. It is centered on the belief in a universal reconciliation between humanity and the divine. For example, some forms of Abrahamic religions claim the universal value of their doctrine and moral principles, and "feel inclusive"[1]Christian Universalism is focused on the idea of universal reconciliation. Also known as universal salvation, it is a doctrine stating that every human soul will ultimately be reconciled to God because of divine love and mercy.[1]

A belief in one fundamental truth is another important tenet in Universalism. The living truth is seen as more far-reaching than the national, cultural, or religious boundaries or interpretations of that one truth. As the Rig Veda states, "Truth is one; sages call it by various names."[2]

Universalism has had an influence on modern day Hinduism, in turn influencing western modern spirituality.{{sfn|King|2002|p=}}

Unitarian Universalism emphasizes that religion is a universal human quality, and also focuses on the universal principles of most religions. It accepts all religions in an inclusive manner.

Philosophy

Universality

{{Main|Universality (philosophy)}}

In philosophy, universality is the notion that universal facts can be discovered and is therefore understood as being in opposition to relativism.[3]

In certain religions, universalism is the quality ascribed to an entity whose existence is consistent throughout the universe.

Moral universalism

{{Main|Moral universalism|Moral particularism}}

Moral universalism (also called moral objectivism or universal morality) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics applies universally. That system is inclusive of all individuals,[4] regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature.[5] Moral universalism is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism. However, not all forms of moral universalism are absolutist, nor do they necessarily value monism. Many forms of universalism, such as utilitarianism, are non-absolutist. Other forms such as those theorized by Isaiah Berlin, may value pluralist ideals.

Secular universalism

Universalism is not only a set of values, but a worldview to which any can subscribe if they observe and believe in the universality of the human experience—and that of all sentient life—and work to uphold the principles, ethics, and actions that safeguard these fundamental things.[6]

Indeed, many Universalists may be attracted to the logic of universally applicable principles, rather than any belief or dogma. Human unity, solidarity, and the perceived need for a sustainable and socially conscious global order are among the tendencies of non-religious Universalist thought.[7]

Religion

Bahá'í Faith

{{Main|Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity|Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion}}

In Bahá'í belief, a single God has sent all the historic founders of the world religions in a process of progressive revelation. As a result, the major world religions are seen as divine in origin and are continuous in their purpose. In this view, there is unity among the founders of world religions, but each revelation brings a more advanced set of teachings in human history and none are syncretic.[8]

Within this universal view, the unity of humanity is one of the central teachings of the Bahá'í Faith.[9] The Bahá'í teachings state that since all humans have been created in the image of God, God does not make any distinction between people with regard to race, colour or religion.[10] Thus, because all humans have been created equal, they all require equal opportunities and treatment.[9] Hence the Bahá'í view promotes the unity of humanity, and that people's vision should be world-embracing and that people should love the whole world rather than just their nation.[10]

The teaching, however, does not equate unity with uniformity; instead the Bahá'í writings advocate the principle of unity in diversity where the variety in the human race is valued.[11] Operating on a worldwide basis this cooperative view of the peoples and nations of the planet culminates in a vision of the practicality of the progression in world affairs towards, and the inevitability of, world peace.[12]

Christianity

{{Main|Christian Universalism}}

The fundamental idea of Christian Universalism is universal reconciliation – that all humans will eventually be saved. They will eventually enter God's kingdom in Heaven, through the grace and works of the lord Jesus Christ.[13] Christian Universalism teaches that an eternal Hell does not exist, and that it was not what Jesus had taught. They point to historical evidence showing that some early fathers of the church were universalists, and attribute the perpetuating idea of hell to eternal mistranslation.[14]

Universalists cite numerous Biblical passages which reference the salvation of all beings.[15] In addition, they argue that an eternal hell is both unjust, and against the nature and attributes of a loving God.[16]

The remaining beliefs of Christian Universalism are generally compatible with the fundamentals of Christianity{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

  • God is the loving Parent of all peoples, see Love of God.
  • Jesus Christ reveals the nature and character of God, and is the spiritual leader of humankind.
  • Humankind is created with an immortal soul, which death can not end—or a mortal soul that shall be resurrected and preserved by God. A soul which God will not wholly destroy.[17]
  • Sin has negative consequences for the sinner either in this life or the afterlife. All of God's punishments for sin are corrective and remedial. None of such punishments will last forever, or result in the permanent destruction of a soul. Some Christian Universalists believe in the idea of a Purgatorial Hell, or a temporary place of purification that some must undergo before their entrance into Heaven.[18]

In 1899 the Universalist General Convention, later called the Universalist Church of America, adopted the Five Principles: the belief in God, Jesus Christ, the immortality of the human soul, the reality of sin and universal reconciliation.[19]

History

{{See also|Universal reconciliation#History|l1=History of Universal Reconciliation}}

Universalist writers such as George T. Knight have claimed that Universalism was a widely held view among theologians in Early Christianity.[20] These included such important figures such as Alexandrian scholar Origen as well as Clement of Alexandria, a Christian theologian. Origen and Clement both included the existence of a non-eternal Hell in their teachings. Hell was remedial, in that it was a place one went to purge one's sins before entering into Heaven.[21]

The first undisputed documentations of Christian Universalist ideas occurred in 17th-century England and 18th-century Europe as well as in colonial America. Between 1648-1697 English activist Gerrard Winstanley, writer Richard Coppin, and dissenter Jane Leade, each taught that God would grant all human beings salvation. The same teachings were later spread throughout 18th-century France and America by George de Benneville. People who taught this doctrine in America would later become known as the Universalist Church of America.[22]

The Greek term apocatastas came to be related by some to the beliefs of Christian Universalism, but central to the doctrine was the restitution, or restoration of all sinful beings to God, and to His state of blessedness. In early Patristics, usage of the term is distinct.

Universalist theology

{{Main|Christian Universalism}}{{religious text primary|section|date=February 2012}}

Universalist theology is grounded in history, scripture and assumptions about the nature of God. Thomas Whittemore wrote the book "100 Scriptural Proofs that Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind"[23] quoting both Old and New Testament verses which support the Universalist viewpoint.

Some Bible verses he cites and are cited by other Christian Universalists are:

  1. 1 Corinthians 15:22&91;24&93;
    • "For as in Adam ALL die, so also in Christ shall ALL be made alive." (ESV; emphasis added)
  2. 2 Peter 3:9
    • "The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance." (ESV; emphasis added)
  3. 1 Timothy 2:3–6&91;24&93;
    • "This is good, and pleases God our Savior, who wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth. For there is one God and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for ALL men—the testimony given in its proper time." (NIV; emphasis added)
  4. 1 John 2:2
    • "He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not only for ours but also for the sins of the whole world." (NIV)
  5. 1 Timothy 4:10&91;24&93;
    • "For to this end we toil and strive, because we have our hope set on the living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially of those who believe." (ESV; emphasis added)
  6. Romans 11:32&91;24&93;
    • "For God has bound all men over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on them all." (NIV)

Mistranslations

Christian Universalists point towards the mistranslations of the Greek word αιών (Lit. aion), as giving rise to the idea of Eternal Hell, and the idea that some people will not be saved.[14][25][26]

This Greek word is the origin of the modern English word aeon, which refers to a period of time or an epoch.

The 19th century theologian Marvin Vincent wrote about the word aion, and the supposed connotations of "eternal" or "temporal":

Aion, transliterated aeon, is a period of longer or shorter duration, having a beginning and an end, and complete in itself. [...] Neither the noun nor the adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of endless or everlasting."[27]

Dr. Ken Vincent writes that "When it (aion) was translated into Latin Vulgate, "aion" became "aeternam" which means "eternal".[14]

Catholicism

The Catholic church believes that God judges everyone based only on their moral acts,[29] that no one should be subject to human misery,[30] that everyone is equal in dignity yet distinct in individuality before God,[31] that no one should be discriminated against because of their sin or concupiscence,[32] and that apart from coercion[33] God exhausts every means to save mankind from evil: original holiness being intended for everyone,[34] the irrevocable Old Testament covenants,[35][36] each religion being a share in the truth,[37] elements of sanctification in non-Catholic Christian communities,[38] the good people of every religion and nation,[39] everyone being called to baptism and confession,[40][41] and purgatory, suffrages, and indulgences for the dead.[42][43][44] The church believes that everyone is predestined to heaven,[45] that no one is predestined to hell,[46] that everyone is redeemed by Christ's Passion,[47] that no one is excluded from the church except by sin,[48] and that everyone can either love God by loving others unto going to heaven or reject God by sin unto going to hell.[49][50] The church believes that God's predestination takes everything into account,[51] and that his providence brings out of evil a greater good,[52] as evidenced, the church believes, by the Passion of Christ being all at once predestined by God,[53] foretold in Scripture,[54] necessitated by original sin,[55] authored by everyone who sins,[56] caused by Christ's executioners,[57] and freely planned and undergone by Christ.[58][59] The church believes that everyone who goes to heaven joins the church,[60][61] and that from the beginning God intended Israel to be the beginning of the church,[62] wherein God would unite all persons to each other and to God.[63] The church believes that heaven and hell are eternal.[64][65]

Hinduism

Author David Frawley says that Hinduism has a "background universalism" and its teachings contain a "universal relevance."[66] Hinduism is also naturally religiously pluralistic.[67] A well-known Rig Vedic hymn says: "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously."[68] Similarly, in the Bhagavad Gītā (4:11), God, manifesting as an incarnation, states: "As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to me."[69] The Hindu religion has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions. Hinduism emphasizes that everyone actually worships the same God, whether one knows it or not.[70]

While Hinduism has an openness and tolerance towards other religions, it also has a wide range of diversity within it.[71] There are considered to be six orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy/theology,[72] as well as multiple unorthodox or "hetrodox" traditions called darshanas.[73]

Hindu Universalism

{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu reform movements}}Hindu Universalism, also called Neo-Vedanta[74] and neo-Hinduism,{{sfn|King|2002|p=93}} is a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It denotes the ideology that all religions are true and therefore worthy of toleration and respect.[75]

It is a modern interpretation that aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"{{sfn|Yelle|2012|p=338}} with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} For example, it presents that:

{{quote|... an imagined "integral unity" that was probably little more than an "imagined" view of the religious life that pertained only to a cultural elite and that empirically speaking had very little reality "on the ground," as it were, throughout the centuries of cultural development in the South Asian region.{{sfn|Larson|2012|p=313}}}}

Hinduism embraces universalism by conceiving the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.[76][77][78]{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}

This modernised re-interpretation has become a broad current in Indian culture,{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}}{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} extending far beyond the Dashanami Sampradaya, the Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya founded by Adi Shankara. An early exponent of Hindu Universalism was Ram Mohan Roy, who established the Brahmo Samaj.{{sfn|Ghazi|2010}} Hindu Universalism was popularised in the 20th century in both India and the west by Vivekananda{{sfn|Michaelson|2009|p=79-81}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} Veneration for all other religions was articulated by Gandhi:

{{quote|After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that [1] all religions are true; [2] all religions have some error in them; [3] all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible.[79]}}

Western orientalists played an important role in this popularisation, regarding Vedanta to be the "central theology of Hinduism".{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} Oriental scholarship portrayed Hinduism as a "single world religion",{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} and denigrated the heterogeneousity of Hindu beliefs and practices as 'distortions' of the basic teachings of Vedanta.{{sfn|King|1999|p=135}}{{Citation not found}}

Islam

{{Further|Ummah|Divisions of the world in Islam|People of the Book|Dhimmi|Dawah|}}{{Original Research|date=June 2018}}

Islam recognizes to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Quran identifying Jews, Christians, and "Sabi'un" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandaeans) as "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab). Later Islamic theologians expanded this definition to include Zoroastrians, and later even Hindus, as the early Islamic empire brought many people professing these religions under its dominion, but the Qur'an explicitly identifies only Jews, Christians, and Sabians as People of the Book.[80]{{Request quotation|date=November 2015}}, [81]{{failed verification|date=November 2015}}, [82]{{failed verification|date=November 2015}} The relation between Islam and universalism has assumed crucial importance in the context of political Islam or Islamism, particularly in reference to Sayyid Qutb, a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood movement, and one of the key contemporary philosophers of Islam.[83]

There are several views within Islam with respect to Universalism. According to the most inclusive teachings, common among the liberal Muslim movements, all monotheistic religions or people of the book have a chance of salvation. For example, Surah 2:62,256 states that:[84]{{unreliable source?|date=October 2017}}{{page needed|date=October 2017}} {{quote|Verily! Those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day and do righteous good deeds shall have their reward with their Lord, on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve...let there be no compulsion in religion}}

However, the most exclusive teachings disagree. For example, the Salafi refer to Surah 9:5,29:{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} {{quote|Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters [mushrikun] wherever ye find them, and take them, and besiege them, and lay in wait in every stratagem of war. But if they repent and establish worship and pay the Zakat, then leave their way free. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful [...] Fight against such of those who have been given the Scripture [i.e. people of the book] as believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, and forbid not that which Allah hath forbidden by His messenger, and follow not the Religion of Truth, until they pay the jizya readily, being brought low [in submission].}}

The interpretation of all of these passages are hotly contested amongst various schools of thought, traditionalist and reform-minded, and branches of Islam, from the reforming Quranism and Ahmadiyya to the ultra-traditionalist Salafi, as is the doctrine of abrogation (naskh) which is used to determine which verses take precedence, based on reconstructed chronology, with later verses superseding earlier ones. The traditional chronology places Surah 9 as the last or second-to-last surah revealed, thus, in traditional exegesis, it gains a large power of abrogation, and verses 9:5,29,73 are held to have abrogated 2:256[85] The ahadith also play a major role in this, and different schools of thought assign different weightings and rulings of authenticity to different hadith, with the four schools of Sunni thought accepting the Six Authentic Collections, generally along with the Muwatta Imam Malik. Depending on the level of acceptance of rejection of certain traditions, the interpretation of the Koran can be changed immensely, from the Qur'anists and Ahmadiyya who reject the ahadith, to the Salafi, or ahl al-hadith, who hold the entirety of the traditional collections in great reverence.

Traditional Islam[85][86] views the world as bipartite, consisting of the House of Islam, that is, where people live under the Sharia;[86] and the House of War, that is, where the people do not live under Sharia, which must be proselytized[86][87][88] using whatever resources available, including, in some traditionalist and conservative interpretations,[89] the use of violence, as holy struggle in the path of God,[82][89][90] to either convert its inhabitants to Islam, or to rule them under the Shariah (cf. dhimmi).[91][92]

Judaism

{{Main|Jewish views on religious pluralism}}{{See also|Noahidism}}

Judaism teaches that God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique covenant with God, and one of their beliefs is that Jewish people were charged by the Torah with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah to other nations. This view does not preclude a belief that God also has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism holds that God had entered into a covenant with all humanity as Noachides, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God, as well as being universal in the sense that it is open to all mankind.[93]

Modern Jews such as Emmanuel Levinas advocate a universalist mindset that is performed through particularist behavior.[94] An on-line organization, the Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute founded and led by Steven Blane, who calls himself an "American Jewish Universalist Rabbi", believes in a more inclusive version of Jewish Universalism, stating that "God equally chose all nations to be lights unto the world, and we have much to learn and share with each other. We can only accomplish Tikkun Olam by our unconditional acceptance of each other's peaceful doctrines."[95]

Manichaeism

{{main|Manichaeism}}

Manichaeism, like Christian Gnosticism and Zurvanism, was inherently universalist.[96]{{page needed|date=November 2015}}

Sikhism

{{multiple issues|section=yes|{{refimprove section|date=February 2012}}{{expand section|date=February 2012}}
}}

In Sikhism, all the religions of the world are compared to rivers flowing into a single ocean. Although the Sikh gurus did not agree with the practices of fasting, idolatry and pilgrimage during their times, they stressed that all religions should be tolerated and considered on equal footing. The Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains the writings of not just the Sikh guru themselves, but the writings of several Hindu and Muslim saints, known as the Bhagats.

The very first word of the Sikh scripture is "Ik", followed by "Oh-ang-kar". This literally means that there is only one god, and that one is wholesome, inclusive of the whole universe. It further goes on to state that all of creation, and all energy is part of this primordial being. As such, it is described in scripture over and over again, that all that occurs is part of the divine will, and as such, has to be accepted. It occurs for a reason, even if its beyond the grasp of one person to understand.

Although Sikhism does not teach that men are created as an image of God, it states that the essence of the One is to be found throughout all of its creation.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} As was said by Yogi Bhajan, the man who is credited with having brought Sikhism to the West:

"If you can't see God in all, you can't see God at all". (Sri Singh Sahib, Yogi Bhajan)[97]

The First Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak said himself:

"There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim".[98][99][100]

By this, Guru Nanak meant that there is no distinction between religion in God's eyes, whether polytheist, monotheist, pantheist, or even atheist, all that one needs to gain salvation is purity of heart, tolerance of all beings, compassion and kindness. Unlike many of the major world religions, Sikhism does not have missionaries, instead it believes men have the freedom to find their own path to salvation.

Unitarian Universalism

{{Main|Unitarian Universalism}}

Unitarian Universalism (UU) is a theologically liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning".[101] Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed; rather, they are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth and by the understanding that an individual's theology is a result of that search and not a result of obedience to an authoritarian requirement. Unitarian Universalists draw from all major world religions[102] and many different theological sources and have a wide range of beliefs and practices.

While having its origins in Christianity, UU is no longer a Christian church. As of 2006, fewer than about 20% of Unitarian Universalists identified themselves as Christian.[103] Contemporary Unitarian Universalism espouses a pluralist approach to religious belief, whereby members may describe themselves as humanist, agnostic, deist, atheist, pagan, Christian, monotheist, pantheist, polytheist, or assume no label at all.

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the American Unitarian Association, established in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America,[104] established in 1866. It is headquartered in Boston, and mainly serves churches in the United States. The Canadian Unitarian Council became an independent body in 2002.[105]

Zoroastrianism

{{main|Zoroastrianism}}

Some varieties of Zoroastrian (such as Zurvanism) are universalistic in application to all races, but not necessarily universalist in the sense of universal salvation.[106]{{failed verification|date=November 2015}}

Critics

In his book The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the Existence of God, the Australian philosopher J. L. Mackie noted that whilst in the past a miracle performed by Jesus had served as proof to Christians that he was the 'one true God', and that a miracle performed by another religion's deity had served as a (contradictory) proof to its own adherents, the universalist approach resulted in any such miracle being accepted as a validation of all religions, a situation that he characterised as "Miracle-workers of the world, unite!"[107]

==See also==

{{Portal|Religion}}{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
  • Ananda Marga
  • Christianity:
    • Liberal Catholic Church
    • Primitive Baptist Universalist
    • Religious Society of Friends
    • Schwarzenau Brethren
    • Swedenborgianism (The New Church)
    • Trinitarian Universalism
  • Comparative religion
  • Ecumenism
  • Hypothetical universalism
  • George MacDonald
  • Mahatma Gandhi Foundation
  • Omnism
  • Perennial philosophy
  • Post-theism
  • Religious liberalism
  • Religious pluralism
  • Subud
  • Universal Sufism
{{colend}}

References

1. ^Otis Ainsworth Skinner (1807-1861), A Series of Sermons in Defense of the Doctrine of Universal Salvation, Page 209, It is not part of mainline Christian doctrine either Catholic or Protestant. "Repentance is a means by which all men are brought into the enjoyment of religion, and we do expect any man will be saved while he continues in sin. However, Unitarian Universalism holds a universal salvation, because is, "we expect all men will repent."
2. ^[https://vedanta.org/what-is-vedanta/harmony-of-religions/ Vedanta Society of Southern California Harmony of Religions]
3. ^Bonnett, A. (2005). Anti-Racism. Routledge.
4. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/u.htm#unvby |title=A Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names |work=Philosophy Pages |first=Garth|last=Kemerling |date=November 12, 2011 |quote=According to Immanuel Kant and Richard Mervyn Hare...moral imperatives must be regarded as equally binding on everyone.}}
5. ^{{cite web |quote=Let us say that moral objectivism maintains that moral judgments are ordinarily true or false in an absolute or universal sense, that some of them are true, and that people sometimes are justified in accepting true moral judgments (and rejecting false ones) on the basis of evidence available to any reasonable and well-informed person. |first=Chris|last=Gowans |title=Moral Relativism |work=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition) |editor=Edward N. Zalta, ed |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/moral-relativism/ |date=Dec 9, 2008}}
6. ^{{cite web|title=Unitarian Universalism |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/types/unitarianuniversalism.shtml|publisher=BBC|accessdate=4 May 2012}}
7. ^{{cite web|title=Unitarian Universalism|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/u-u.htm|accessdate=4 May 2012}}
8. ^{{cite book |title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1999 |page=292 |last=Buck |first=Christopher}}
9. ^1 {{cite book|first=Robert |last=Stockman |title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions |isbn=1-57731-121-3 |publisher=New World Library |year=2000 |editor-first=Joel |editor-last=Beversluis|chapter=The Baha'i Faith |page=7}}
10. ^1 {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-86251-5 |page=138}}
11. ^{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-86251-5 |page=139}}
12. ^{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=peace |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85168-184-1 |pages=266–267}}
13. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/chr-univ.html |title=What Is Christian Universalism? |publisher=Auburn.edu |date=|accessdate=2017-12-17}}
14. ^1 2 The Salvation Conspiracy: How Hell Became Eternal
15. ^{{cite web|author=Gary Amirault |url=http://www.tentmaker.org/tracts/TheFateOfTheWicked.html |title=The Fate of the Wicked |publisher=Tentmaker.org |date= |accessdate=2017-12-17}}
16. ^Guild, E.E. 'Arguments in Favour of Universalism'. http://www.tentmaker.org/books/InFavorCh20.htmlhttp://godfire.net/eby/saviour_of_the_world.htmlhttp://www.godfire.net/Hellidx.html
17. ^The Bible Hell. TentMaker.org. "The immortal soul is not meant, but the life. As though Jesus had said: "Fear Not those who can only kill the body, but rather him, who if he chose could destroy the soul"
18. ^{{cite book|author=Miriam Van Scott |title=The Encyclopedia of Hell: A Comprehensive Survey of the Underworld |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EnBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |date=10 February 2015 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-4668-9119-7 |page=240 |chapter=Purgatorial Hell}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/prof.html |title=See section entitled "Five Principles of Faith" |publisher=Auburn.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-11-09}}
20. ^1 George T. Knight The Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 1953, vol. 12, p. 96; retrieved 30/04/09
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://stanrock.net/2015/05/20/purgatorial-hell-faq/ |title=Purgatorial Hell FAQ |publisher=StanRock.net |date= |accessdate=2016-01-19}}
22. ^{{cite journal |last1=Wyatt |first1=Neal |last2=Dwyer |first2=Tierney V |last3=Dwyer |first3=Tierney V |year=2008 |title=Unitarian Universalism: A Research Guide |url=|journal=Reference & User Services Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=3|pages=210–214 |doi=10.5860/rusq.47n3.210}}
23. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tentmaker.org/books/ScripturalProofs.html |title=100 Scriptural Proofs That Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind |publisher=Tentmaker.org |date= |accessdate=2017-12-17}}
24. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|title=The Fate of the Wicked|url=http://www.tentmaker.org/tracts/TheFateOfTheWicked.html|work=tentmaker.org|publisher=Tentmaker|accessdate=29 June 2012|author=Tentmaker}}
25. ^"Eternal" Punishment (Matthew 25:46) Is NOT Found In The Greek New Testament.
26. ^[https://carm.org/look-word-aionion A look at the word "aionion"]
27. ^{{cite web|last=Vincent|first=Marvin|title=Note on Olethron Aionion (eternal destruction)|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/vincent.html|work=Word Studies in the New Testament|accessdate=18 June 2012}}
28. ^John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-88141-006-3}}, p. 7
29. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 2516
30. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 2448
31. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1935-1937
32. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 2358
33. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 311
34. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 405
35. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 123
36. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 71
37. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 839-845
38. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 819
39. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 761
40. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1246
41. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1446
42. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1030-1031
43. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1032
44. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1479
45. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 381
46. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1037
47. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 605
48. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1443-1445
49. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1033
50. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1861
51. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 600
52. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 312
53. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 599
54. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 601
55. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 410-412
56. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 598
57. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 597
58. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 610
59. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 621
60. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1024
61. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 962
62. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 761-762
63. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 775
64. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1051-1053
65. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church 1056-1058
66. ^Pluralism and Universalism Within Hinduism "Hindu teachings were also denigrated accordingly and the deeper philosophies of Hinduism were often ignored, especially their universal relevance. For conversion purposes it was easier to define Hinduism in a limited way as a local phenomenon only. Yet the universality of Hindu teachings continued, though few outside of India understood this until recent years. This background universalism of Sanatana Dharma affords Hinduism a synthetic tendency, an ability to incorporate within itself a diversity of views and approaches, including at times those from groups outside of Hinduism or even opposed to Hinduism. Because of this syncretic view, sometimes Hinduism is equated with a blind universalism that accepts without discrimination anything that calls itself religious or spiritual, as if differences of spiritual teachings did not matter in any way. While this may be true of some Hindus, the Hindu tradition also contains a lively tradition of free debate on all aspects of theology, philosophy and metaphysics, showing differences as well as similarities, and not simply equating all teachings as they are. A good example of this is the debates between the dualistic and non-dualistic schools of Vedantic philosophy, but many other examples exist as well. The different sects within Hinduism have always been free to disagree, though each sect has its particular guidelines and there is an overall respect for Dharma."
67. ^[https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics Hindu American Foundation "Hinduism Basics"]
68. ^Rig Veda 1.164.46
69. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=56UM3BIvbHYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=easwaran+1586380273&lr=&cd=1#v=onepage&q=as%20people%20approach%20me&f=false Page 194] in Eknath Easwaran (2008). Timeless wisdom: Passages for meditation from the world's saints & sages (see article). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press. {{ISBN|1-58638-027-3}}. Similar to Eknath Easwaran (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=a-Oh_-rK5SQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=easwaran+1586380192&lr=&cd=1#v=onepage&q=approach%20me&f=false The Bhagavad Gita], 2nd ed. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, p. 117. ISBN1586380192 (which substitutes "they" for "people"). Transliteration from Winthrop Sargeant (1984). The Bhagavad Gita. Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 211. {{ISBN|0-87395-831-4}}, which translates the same passage as "They who, in whatever way, take refuge in Me, them I reward."
70. ^See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) {{ISBN|1-884852-04-1}}
71. ^[https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics Hindu American Foundation Hinduism Basics "It is a richly diverse family of philosophies, traditions, and practices that have been followed primarily throughout Asia for thousands of years."]
72. ^"Shat-darshana: The Philosophical Schools of Sanatana Dharma"
73. ^Indian Philosophy: Orthodox and Heterodox Schools
74. ^Frank Morales, Neo-Vedanta: The problem with Hindu Universalism
75. ^{{cite book|title=What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith|year=2007|publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications|isbn=1934145009|page=416|author=Editors of Hinduism Today}}
76. ^(Rigveda 1:164:46) "Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti" - Truth is one; sages call it many names
77. ^(Maha Upanishad: Chapter 6, Verse 72) "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" - The entire world is a one big family
78. ^{{Cite book |last=Badlani |first=Hiro |title=Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom |publisher=iUniverse |year=2008 |page=303 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8NrQhyxH-GgC |isbn=978-0-595-70183-4}}
79. ^M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.
80. ^{{cite book|last=Crone|first=Patricia|title=God's Rule: Government and Islam: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought|year=2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13291-6|page=472}}
81. ^{{cite book|last1=Lapidus|first1=Ira M.|title=Ira M. Lapidus|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521514309|page=1000|url=https://books.google.com/?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ&dq=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies}}
82. ^1 {{cite book|last1=Karsh|first1=Efraim|title=Islamic Imperialism: A History|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300122633|page=304 |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Islamic%20Imperialism_A%20History_2nd%20Ed_Karsh.pdf}}
83. ^{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/5611020/The_Inclusive_Dynamics_of_Islamic_Universalism_From_the_Vantage_Point_of_Sayyid_Qutb_s_Critical_Philosophy|title=The Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical Philosophy|last=Mura|first=Andrea|date=2014|journal=Comparative Philosophy|access-date=2015-05-12}}
84. ^1. S. A. Rahman, Punishment of Apostasy in Islam, Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1972
85. ^1 {{cite book|last=Ibn Kathir|first=Ismail (1301-1373)|title=Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz (Tafsir Ibn Kathir)|year=2000|publisher=Maktaba Darussalam|location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia|isbn=978-1-59144-020-8|page=6608|edition=English Abridged|editor=Sheikh Safiur-Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri|language=English, Arabic}}
86. ^1 2 {{cite web|url=http://english.islamway.com/bindex.php?section=article&id=211|title=Dar Al-Islam And Dar Al-Harb: Its Definition and Significance|publisher=IslamWay (English)|date=2002-05-27|accessdate=2015-05-12|last=Khalil|first=Ahmed}}
87. ^{{cite book|last=Ye'or|first=Bat|title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam|year=1985|publisher=Farleign Dickinson University Press |page=444|isbn=978-0838632628}}
88. ^{{cite book|last=Ye'or|first=Bat|title=The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: 7th–20th Centuries |publisher=Farleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3688-6|page=522}}
89. ^1 Ibn Kathir's Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz
90. ^Sayyid Qutb Milestones
91. ^{{cite book|last=Durie |first=Mark|title=The Third Choice: Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom|year=2010|publisher=Deror Books|isbn=978-0-9807223-1-4|page=288}}
92. ^{{cite book|last=Ye'or |first=Bat|title=Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide|year=2001|publisher=Farleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3942-9|page=528}}
93. ^{{cite journal |last1=Polish |first1=David |year=1985 |title=Covenant-Jewish Universalism and Particularism |journal=Judaism |volume=34 |issue=3 |page=284 }}
94. ^Magid, Shaul. [https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-arts-and-culture/264145/social-justice-and-the-future-of-judaism "Social Justice and the Future of ...."] Tablet Magazine. 13 June 2018. 5 February 2019.
95. ^{{cite web|title=Jewish Universalism|url=http://www.jsli.net/jewish-universalism|work=Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute|publisher=Google Inc|accessdate=29 June 2012|author=Staff}}
96. ^{{cite journal|title=Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire|author=Manfred Hutter |date=January 1993|publisher=BRILL|jstor=3270395|volume=40}}
97. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.sikhdharma.org/about-the-siri-singh-sahib-yogi-bhajan/|title=About the Siri Singh Sahib – Sikh Dharma International|website=www.sikhdharma.org|access-date=2017-11-02}}
98. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/There_is_no_Hindu_and_no_Musalman|title=There is no Hindu and no Musalman - SikhiWiki, free Sikh encyclopedia.|website=www.sikhiwiki.org|access-date=2016-11-19}}
99. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sikhs.org/guru1.htm|title=Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People|website=www.sikhs.org|access-date=2016-11-19}}
100. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/gurunanakforchildren/chapter4/#No%20Hindu,%20and%20no%20Muslim|title=Guru Nanak (for Children) - No Hindu, and no Muslim|last=Munde |first=Amarpreet Singh|website=www.gurmat.info|access-date=2016-11-19}}
101. ^(The 4th principle of Unitarian Universalism)UUA.org Seven principles
102. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Rastafarianism |title=Major Religions Ranked by Size |publisher=Adherents.com |date= |accessdate=April 19, 2013}}
103. ^{{cite book |last=Ford |first=James Ishmael |title=Zen Master Who? |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2006 |page=187 |isbn=0-86171-509-8}}
104. ^Harvard Divinity School: Timeline of Significant Events in the Merger of the Unitarian and Universalist Churches During the 1900s
105. ^CUC-UUA Tradition. Canadian Unitarian Council Growing Vital Religious Communities In Canada {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706174556/http://cuc.ca/who_we_are/cuc-uua_transition.htm |date=2011-07-06 }}
106. ^Jonathan Porter Berkey The formation of Islam: religion and society in the Near East 2003 p28 "This is not to say that there was no universalist dimension to Zoroastrian religious life; but what universalism there was derived directly, and to a greater degree than in the case of Rome and Christianity, from the explicit connection between religion and the state."
107. ^{{cite book |author-last1=Mackie |author-first1=J. L. |title=The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the Existence of God |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=November 1982 |isbn=978-0198246824|quote="It is no longer 'The heathen in his blindness…', but rather 'We worship the same god, but under different names and in different ways’. Carried far enough, this modern tendency would allow Christian miracles to support, not undermine, belief in the supernatural achievements of stone-age witch doctors and medicine men, and vice versa. It is as if someone had coined the slogan, Miracle-workers of the world, unite!"|page=15}}

Sources

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  • {{Citation|last=King|first=Richard|author-link=Richard E. King|year=1999|title=Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East"|publisher=Routledge}}
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Further reading

  • {{cite book |last=Ankerl |first=Guy |title=Global communication without universal civilization |publisher=INU Press |location=Geneva, Switzerland |volume=Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |year=2000 |isbn=9782881550041}}
  • {{citation |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |contribution=Chapter eight: Christianity as the Universal religion |editor-last=Palmquist |editor-first=Stephen |title=Kant's critical religion |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot, Hants, England Burlington, Vermont |year=2000 |isbn=9780754613336 |ref=harv |postscript=.}} Online.
  • {{citation |last=Scott |first=Joan W. |author-link=Joan Wallach Scott |contribution=French Universalism in the nineties |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Marilyn |editor-link=Marilyn Friedman |title=Women and citizenship |pages=35–51 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford New York |series=Studies in Feminist Philosophy |year=2005 |isbn=9780195175356 |ref=harv |postscript=.}}

External links

  • Catholic Encyclopedia article on Universalists as a Protestant denomination
  • Catholic Encyclopedia article on Apocatastasis/apokatastatis
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