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词条 Unmanned aerial vehicle
释义

  1. Terminology

  2. History

  3. Classification

  4. UAV components

     Body  Power supply and platform  Computing  Sensors  Actuators  Software  Loop principles  Flight controls  Communications 

  5. Autonomy

      Basic principles    Autonomy features  

  6. Functions

      Reactive autonomy    Simultaneous localization and mapping    Swarming    Future military potential    Cognitive radio    Learning capabilities  

  7. Market

      Military    Civilian    Transport  

  8. Development considerations

      Animal imitation – ethology   Endurance  Reliability 

  9. Applications

  10. Existing UAVs

  11. Events

  12. Safety and security

      Air traffic    Malicious use    Counter unmanned air system    Security vulnerabilities   Wildfires 

  13. Regulation

      Ireland    Netherlands    Canada    South Africa    United Arab Emirates    Italy    Japan    United States    Recreational use    Commercial use   Government use  United Kingdom 

  14. See also

  15. References

     Bibliography 

  16. External links

     Research and groups  Further reading 
{{short description|Aircraft without a human pilot aboard}}{{redirect|UAV}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot onboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS); which include a UAV, a ground-based controller, and a system of communications between the two. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy: either under remote control by a human operator or autonomously by onboard computers.[2]

Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs were originally used for missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous"[3] for humans. While they originated mostly in military applications, their use is rapidly expanding to commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other applications,[4] such as policing, peacekeeping,[5] and surveillance, product deliveries, aerial photography, smuggling,[6] and drone racing. Civilian UAVs now vastly outnumber military UAVs, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015.{{cn|date=January 2019}}

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Terminology

Multiple terms are used for unmanned aerial vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept.

The term drone, more widely used by the public, was coined in reference to the early remotely-flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, and the term was first used with the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930's de Havilland Queen Bee target aircraft. These two were followed in service by the similarly-named Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet, before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik.[7]

The term unmanned aircraft system (UAS) was adopted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.[8] The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.[9] This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is an unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS), remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV), remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS).[10] Many similar terms are in use.

A UAV is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload".[11] Therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided.

The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear.{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}} UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US Federal Aviation Administration defines any unmanned flying craft as a UAV regardless of size. For recreational uses, a drone (as opposed to a UAV) is a model aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.[12]

History

{{Main|History of unmanned aerial vehicles}}

The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred on July 1849,[14][15] serving as a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier)[16] in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation.[17][18][19] Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship {{SMS|Vulcano}}. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.[20][21][22]

UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time.[23]

The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916.[24] Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial combat vehicles in 1915.[25] Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. This developments also inspired the development of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from Dayton, Ohio. This was initially meant as an unmanned plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. The first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935.[24] More emerged during World War II{{snd}} used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack missions. Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war. Jet engines entered service after World War II in vehicles such as the Australian GAF Jindivik, and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in 1955.[24] Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War.

In 1959, the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of unmanned aircraft.{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p= xi}} Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly classified UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon".{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p= xi, xii}} The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan AQM-91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War.{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=xii}} When the Chinese government{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=79}} showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos,{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=78, 79}} the official U.S. response was "no comment".

During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras were first tested by the Israeli intelligence, successfully bringing photos from across the Suez canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs, which could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs), were developed and tested in battle.[26]

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles.[27] After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UVA.[28]{{Pages needed|date=January 2019}}

In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam).{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=202}} Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=200, 212}} at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit."{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=208}} Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ... they save lives!"{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=208}}

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel developed the first UAV with real-time surveillance.[29][30][31] The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.[32] The first time UAVs were used as proof-of-concept of super-agility post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations involved tailless, stealth technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight control, jet-steering UAVs in Israel in 1987.[33]

With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.

CAPECON was a European Union project to develop UAVs,[34] running from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005.[35]

As of 2012, the USAF employed 7,494 UAVs{{snd}} almost one in three USAF aircraft.[36][39] The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs.[37]

In 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, and others designed and built their own varieties.

Classification

UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (although multi-role airframe platforms are becoming more prevalent):

  • Target and decoy – providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile
  • Reconnaissance – providing battlefield intelligence
  • Combat – providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see: Unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV))
  • Logistics – delivering cargo
  • Research and development – improve UAV technologies
  • Civil and commercial UAVs – agriculture, aerial photography, data collection

The U.S. Military UAV tier system is used by military planners to designate the various individual aircraft elements in an overall usage plan.

Vehicles can be categorised in terms of range/altitude. The following has been advanced{{by whom|date=February 2016}} as relevant at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

  • Hand-held {{convert|2000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, about 2 km range
  • Close {{convert|5000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, up to 10 km range
  • NATO type {{convert|10000|ft|m|-3|abbr=on}} altitude, up to 50 km range
  • Tactical {{convert|18000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, about 160 km range
  • MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to {{convert|30000|ft|m|-3|abbr=on}} and range over 200 km
  • HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}} and indefinite range
  • Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) {{convert|50000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
  • Orbital low earth orbit (Mach 25+)
  • CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
  • Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

Other categories include:[38][39]

  • Hobbyist UAVs – which can be further divided into
    • Ready-to-fly (RTF)/Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
    • Bind-and-fly (BNF) – require minimum knowledge to fly the platform
    • Almost-ready-to-fly (ARF)/Do-it-yourself (DIY){{snd}} require significant knowledge to get in the air
    • Bare frame – requires significant knowledge and your own parts to get it in the air
  • Midsize military and commercial UAVs
  • Large military-specific UAVs
  • Stealth combat UAVs
  • Manned aircraft transformed into unmanned (and Optionally Piloted UAVS or OPVs)

Classifications according to aircraft weight are quite simpler:

  • Micro air vehicle (MAV) – the smallest UAVs that can weigh less than 1g
  • Miniature UAV (also called SUAS){{snd}} approximately less than 25 kg
  • Heavier UAVs

UAV components

{{refimprove section|date=May 2016}}

Manned and unmanned aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their manned counterparts with comparable armaments.

Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for manned aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for manned aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different than manned craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both manned and unmanned aircraft, with varying feature sets.

Body

The primary difference for planes is the absence of the cockpit area and its windows. Tailless quadcopters are a common form factor for rotary wing UAVs while tailed mono- and bi-copters are common for manned platforms.[40]

Power supply and platform

Small UAVs mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while larger vehicles rely on conventional airplane engines. Scale or size of aircraft is not the defining or limiting characteristic of energy supply for a UAV. At present,{{when|date=August 2018}} the energy density of Li-Po is far less than gasoline. The record of travel for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill in "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record. See:[41] Electric power is used as less work is required for a flight and electric motors are quieter. Also, properly designed, the thrust to weight ratio for an electric or gasoline motor driving a propeller can hover or climb vertically. Botmite airplane is an example of an electric UAV which can climb vertically.[42]

Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) is used to centralize power distribution and often harbors a microcontroller unit (MCU). Costlier switching BECs diminish heating on the platform.

Computing

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).

System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot.

Sensors

Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.[46]

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.[43]

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on-board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit{{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.[44]

Actuators

UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

Software

UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. UAVs are real-time systems that require rapid response to changing sensor data. Examples include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards, etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as Nuttx, preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.

Flight stack overview
LayerRequirementOperationsExample
FirmwareTime-criticalFrom machine code to processor execution, memory accessArduCopter-v1.px4
MiddlewareTime-criticalFlight control, navigation, radio managementCleanflight, ArduPilot
Operating systemComputer-intensiveOptic flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision-makingROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT

Civil-use open-source stacks include:

{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
  • ArduCopter
    • DroneCode (forked from ArduCopter)
  • CrazyFlie
  • KKMultiCopter
  • MultiWii
    • BaseFlight (forked from MultiWii)
    • CleanFlight (forked from BaseFlight)
    • BetaFlight (forked from CleanFlight)
    • iNav (forked from CleanFlight)
    • RaceFlight (forked from CleanFlight)
  • OpenPilot
    • dRonin (forked from OpenPilot)
    • LibrePilot (forked from OpenPilot)
    • TauLabs (forked from OpenPilot)
  • Paparazzi
{{colend}}

Loop principles

UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures.

  • Open loop{{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
  • Closed loop{{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is common. Sometimes, feedforward is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.[45]

Flight controls

UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive manœuvres or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,[46] and then to climb toward better communication spots.[47] Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,[48][49] such as VTOL designs.

UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.[50]

Communications

Most UAVs use a radio for remote control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator. For very long range flights, military UAVs also use satellite receivers as part of satellite navigation systems. In cases when video transmission was required, the UAVs will implement a separate analog video radio link.

In the most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having 2 separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types of data on a single radio link. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques to optimize the C&C traffic for low latency. Usually these broadband links carry TCP/IP traffic that can be routed over the Internet.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

  • Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS). Recently control from wearable devices,[51] human movement recognition, human brain waves[52] was also demonstrated.
  • Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers.[53] Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets,[54] while direct UAV control uplink over the celullar mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.[55]
  • Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).[56]
  • A protocol MAVLink is increasingly becoming popular to carry command and control data between the ground control and the vehicle

Autonomy

{{refimprove section|date=May 2016}}

ICAO classifies unmanned aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Actual UAVs may offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. E.g., a vehicle that is remotely piloted in most contexts may have an autonomous return-to-base operation.

Basic autonomy comes from proprioceptive sensors. Advanced autonomy calls for situational awareness, knowledge about the environment surrounding the aircraft from exterioceptive sensors: sensor fusion integrates information from multiple sensors.[57]

Basic principles

One way to achieve autonomous control employs multiple control-loop layers, as in hierarchical control systems. As of 2016 the low-layer loops (i.e. for flight control) tick as fast as 32,000 times per second, while higher-level loops may cycle once per second. The principle is to decompose the aircraft's behavior into manageable "chunks", or states, with known transitions. Hierarchical control system types range from simple scripts to finite state machines, behavior trees and hierarchical task planners. The most common control mechanism used in these layers is the PID controller which can be used to achieve hover for a quadcopter by using data from the IMU to calculate precise inputs for the electronic speed controllers and motors.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Examples of mid-layer algorithms:

  • Path planning: determining an optimal path for vehicle to follow while meeting mission objectives and constraints, such as obstacles or fuel requirements
  • Trajectory generation (motion planning): determining control maneuvers to take in order to follow a given path or to go from one location to another[58][59]
  • Trajectory regulation: constraining a vehicle within some tolerance to a trajectory

Evolved UAV hierarchical task planners use methods like state tree searches or genetic algorithms.[60]

Autonomy features

UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:

  • Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.
  • Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric or ground sensors.
  • Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using GNSS or inertal sensors.
  • Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.
  • Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
  • Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also:Autoland)
  • Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal
  • Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
  • Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, image recognition or homing beacon.
  • GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
  • Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.
  • Pre-programmed aerobatics (such as rolls and loops)

Functions

Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as airborne refueling[61] or ground-based battery switching; but higher-level tasks call for greater computing, sensing and actuating capabilities. One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory, and used in the table below:[62]

Medium levels of autonomy, such as reactive autonomy and high levels using cognitive autonomy, have already been achieved to some extent and are very active research fields.

Reactive autonomy

{{See also|Perceptual control theory}}

Reactive autonomy, such as collective flight, real-time collision avoidance, wall following and corridor centring, relies on telecommunication and situational awareness provided by range sensors: optic flow,[63] lidars (light radars), radars, sonars.

Most range sensors analyze electromagnetic radiation, reflected off the environment and coming to the sensor. The cameras (for visual flow) act as simple receivers. Lidars, radars and sonars (with sound mechanical waves) emit and receive waves, measuring the round-trip transit time. UAV cameras do not require emitting power, reducing total consumption.

Radars and sonars are mostly used for military applications.

Reactive autonomy has in some forms already reached consumer markets: it may be widely available in less than a decade.[57]

Simultaneous localization and mapping

SLAM combines odometry and external data to represent the world and the position of the UAV in it in three dimensions. High-altitude outdoor navigation does not require large vertical fields-of-view and can rely on GPS coordinates (which makes it simple mapping rather than SLAM).[64]

Two related research fields are photogrammetry and LIDAR, especially in low-altitude and indoor 3D environments.

  • Indoor photogrammetric and stereophotogrammetric SLAM has been demonstrated with quadcopters.[65]
  • Lidar platforms with heavy, costly and gimbaled traditional laser platforms are proven. Research attempts to address production cost, 2D to 3D expansion, power-to-range ratio, weight and dimensions.[66][67] LED range-finding applications are commercialized for low-distance sensing capabilities. Research investigates hybridization between light emission and computing power: phased array spatial light modulators,[68][69] and frequency-modulated-continuous-wave (FMCW) MEMS-tunable vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs).[70]

Swarming

{{Further|Swarm behaviour}}

Robot swarming refers to networks of agents able to dynamically reconfigure as elements leave or enter the network. They provide greater flexibility than multi-agent cooperation. Swarming may open the path to data fusion. Some bio-inspired flight swarms use steering behaviors and flocking.{{clarify|date=May 2016}}

Future military potential

In the military sector, American Predators and Reapers are made for counterterrorism operations and in war zones in which the enemy lacks sufficient firepower to shoot them down. They are not designed to withstand antiaircraft defenses or air-to-air combat. In September 2013, the chief of the US Air Combat Command stated that current UAVs were "useless in a contested environment" unless manned aircraft were there to protect them.[167] A 2012 Congressional Research Service (CRS) report speculated that in the future, UAVs may be able to perform tasks beyond intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and strikes; the CRS report listed air-to-air combat ("a more difficult future task") as possible future undertakings.[168] The Department of Defense's Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2013-2038 foresees a more important place for UAVs in combat.[169] Issues include extended capabilities, human-UAV interaction, managing increased information flux, increased autonomy and developing UAV-specific munitions.[169] DARPA's project of systems of systems,[71] or General Atomics work may augur future warfare scenarios, the latter disclosing Avenger swarms equipped with High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS).[72]

Cognitive radio

Cognitive radio{{clarify|date=May 2016}} technology may have UAV applications.[73]

Learning capabilities

UAVs may exploit distributed neural networks.[57]

Market

Military

The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States and Israel. By sale numbers, The US held over 60% military-market share in 2017. Four of top five military UAV manufactures are American including General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman and Boeing, followed by the Chinese company CASC.[74] Israel companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV system and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014); top importers of military UAV are The United Kingdom (33.9%) and India (13.2%). United States alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014.[75] General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line.

Civilian

The civilian drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese drone manufacturer DJI alone has 75% of civilian-market share in 2017 with $11 billion forecast global sales in 2020.[76] Followed by French company Parrot with $110m and US company 3DRobotics with $21.6m in 2014.[77] As of March 2018, more than one million UAVs (878,000 hobbyist and 122,000 commercial) were registered with the U.S. FAA. 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.[78]

Civilian UAV market is relatively new compared to military. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors like in United States and by government agencies as the case in India.[79] Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.[80] Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.[81]

Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civilian drones are easier to use and have higher reliability. DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US Army has employed.[82][83]

The global UAV market will reach US$ 21.47 billion, with the Indian market touching the US$ 885.7 million mark, by 2021.[84]

Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes.

Transport

The AIA reports large cargo and passengers drones should be certified and introduced over the next 20 years.Sensor-carrying large drones are expected from 2018; short-haul, low altitude freighters outside cities from 2025; long-haul cargo flights by the mid-2030s and then passenger flights by 2040.Spending should rise from a few hundred million dollars on research and development in 2018 to $4 billion by 2028 and $30 billion by 2036.{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/future-aerospace/aia-large-passengercargo-uas-market-reach-30-billion-2036 |title= AIA: Large Passenger/Cargo UAS Market To Reach $30 Billion By 2036 |date= Feb 26, 2018 |author= Graham Warwick |magazine= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}
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Bibliography

  • {{citation |last=Wagner |first=William |title=Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones; The can-do story of Ryan's unmanned spy planes |year=1982 |publisher=Armed Forces Journal International : Aero Publishers |isbn=978-0-8168-6654-0}}

External links

{{Commons category|Unmanned aerial vehicles}}

{{Wikiquote|Drones}}

Research and groups

  • Center for Unmanned Aircraft Systems, a National Science Foundation Industry & University Cooperative Research Center
  • UVS International Non Profit Organization representing manufacturers of unmanned vehicle systems (UVS), subsystems and critical components for UVS and associated equipment, as well as companies supplying services with or for UVS, research organizations and academia.
  • link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The Remote Control Aerial Platform Association, commercial UAS operators
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20160909214339/http://www.nlc.org/Documents/Find%20City%20Solutions/City-Solutions-and-Applied-Research/NLC%20Drone%20Report.pdf Cities and Drones] National League of Cities report on urban government use and regulation of UAS equipment
  • Drones and Drone Data Technical Interest Group (TIG) Technology and techniques (equipment, software, workflows, survey designs) to allow individuals to enhance their capabilities with data obtained from drones and drone surveys. Chaired by Karl Osvald and James McDonald.

Further reading

  • {{Cite web|url = http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/research/papers/files/2016/garcia-bernardo2016a.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104147/http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/research/papers/files/2016/garcia-bernardo2016a.pdf|dead-url = yes|archive-date = 2016-02-06|title = Quantitative patterns in drone wars|date = 2016|access-date = |website = Science direct|last = Garcia-Bernardo, Sheridan Dodds, F. Johnson}}
  • Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). The rise of the drones: From The Great War to Gaza. Vancouver Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series.
  • Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fMQtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security]. Between the Lines. {{ISBN|9781771131544}}
  • [https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/how-intelligent-drones-are-shaping-the-future-of-warfare-w471703 How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare], Rolling Stone Magazine
{{Mobile robots}}{{Robotics}}{{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Unmanned Aerial Vehicle}}

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