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词条 2022 United States redistricting
释义

  1. United States House of Representatives

     Reapportionment  Congressional redistricting methods  Control of congressional redistricting  Congressional redistricting plans passed by legislature  Congressional redistricting plans passed by independent commission  Congressional redistricting plans passed by politician commission 

  2. State legislatures

     Legislative redistricting methods  Control of legislative redistricting  State legislative redistricting plans passed by legislature  State legislative redistricting plans passed by independent commission  State legislative redistricting plans passed by politician commission 

  3. Redistricting organizations and funds

  4. Changes since 2012

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. External links

Redistricting will occur in the United States in 2022, following the completion of the 2020 United States Census. In all fifty states, various bodies will re-draw state legislative districts. In states with more than one member of the United States House of Representatives, new lines will also be drawn for federal House districts. Political parties prepare for redistricting years in advance, and partisan control of redistricting institutions can provide a party with major advantages.[1] Various laws and court decisions have put constraints on redistricting institutions, but redistricting institutions continue to practice gerrymandering, which involves drawing new districts with the intention of giving a political advantage to specific groups.[2] Aside from the possibility of mid-decade redistricting,[3] the districts drawn in 2022 will remain in effect until the next round of redistricting following the 2030 United States Census.

United States House of Representatives

Reapportionment

{{see also|United States congressional apportionment}}

Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the United States House of Representatives and apportions Representatives to the states based on population, with reapportionment occurring every ten years. The decennial United States Census determines the population of each state. Each of the fifty states is guaranteed at least one representative, and the Huntington–Hill method is used to assign the remaining 385 seats to states based on the population of each state. Congress has provided for reapportionment every ten years since the passage of the Reapportionment Act of 1929.

Since 1913, the U.S. House of Representatives has consisted of 435 members, a number set by statute, though the number of Representatives temporarily increased in 1959. Reapportionment also affects presidential elections, as each state is guaranteed electoral votes equivalent to the number of Representatives and Senators representing the state.

Prior to the 2022 elections, each state apportioned more than one Representative will draw new congressional districts based on the reapportionment following the 2020 Census. Based on projections of population growth, Northeastern and Midwestern states such as Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Minnesota may lose seats, while Western and Southern states such as California, Oregon, Arizona, Colorado, Texas, Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia may gain seats.[4] The Southern states of Alabama and West Virginia may also lose seats.[4]

Congressional redistricting methods

{{Main|Redistricting}}

Each U.S. Representative represents one congressional district, which encompasses all or part of a single state. The states have wide latitude in the re-drawing of congressional districts, a process known as redistricting. State power over redistricting is subject to limits set by the U.S. Constitution, rulings of the federal judiciary and statutes passed by Congress. In the case of Wesberry v. Sanders, the Supreme Court of the United States established that states must draw districts that are equal in population "as nearly as is practicable." Subsequent court cases have required states to redistrict every ten years, although states can redistrict more often than that depending on their own statutes and constitutional provisions.[5] Since the passage of the 1967 Uniform Congressional Districts Act, most states have been barred from using multi-member districts; all states currently use single-member districts.[6] The Voting Rights Act of 1965 establishes protections against racial redistricting plans that would deny minority voters an equal opportunity to elect representatives of their choice. The Supreme Court case of Thornburg v. Gingles established a test to determine whether redistricting lines violate the Voting Rights Act. In some states, courts have required the creation of majority-minority districts.[7] Many states have also adopted other criteria, including compactness, contiguity, and the preservation of political subdivisions (such as cities or counties) or communities of interest.[8] Some states, including Arizona, require the drawing of competitive districts.[8]

In most states, the state legislature draws the new districts, but some states have established redistricting commissions.[9] Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Michigan, and Washington use independent commissions to draw House districts, while Hawaii and New Jersey use "politician commissions" to draw House districts.[9] In all other states with multiple House districts, the legislature draws district lines, although some states have advisory commissions that can play a major role in drawing lines, and other states have backup commissions if the state legislature is unable to draw the lines itself.[9] Most states draw new lines by passing a law the same way any other law is passed, but some states have special procedures.[9] Connecticut and Maine require a 2/3 super-majorities in each house of the state legislature for redistricting plans, while district lines are not subject to gubernatorial veto in Connecticut and North Carolina.[9] The Ohio redistricting process is designed to encourage the legislature to pass a map with bipartisan support, but the majority party can pass maps that last for four years (as opposed to the normal ten years) without the support of the minority party.[16] The legislatures of Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia can override gubernatorial vetoes with a simple majority vote,[10] giving governors in those states little leverage in the drawing of new district maps.

Every state with more than one congressional district must pass a new redistricting plan before the filing deadlines of the 2022 elections.[11] Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Vermont, and Wyoming are likely to continue to have only one representative in the House, and so will not have to draw new House districts. Rhode Island could also lose its second representative.[4] In many states, districts are drawn with the intent to benefit certain political groups, including one of the two major political parties, in a practice known as gerrymandering. The elections preceding 2022, especially the 2018 elections and 2020 elections, will determine which party controls the redistricting process in each state.[11]

Control of congressional redistricting

Congressional redistricting plans passed by legislature

The table shows the partisan control of states in which congressional redistricting is enacted via a bill passed by the legislature. Partisan control in at least some states is likely to change between the 2018 elections and the passage of redistricting plans.[11] States in which the governor can technically veto the bill, but that veto can be overridden by a simple majority of the state legislature, are marked as "veto override."

Partisan control of state governments[12][13]
State Control Seats[14] Governor State Senate State House
AlabamaRepublican 7{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
ArkansasRepublican 4RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
ConnecticutN|Split*‡}} 5No vetoDemocraticDemocratic
FloridaRepublican 27RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
GeorgiaRepublican 14RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
IllinoisDemocratic 18DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
IndianaRepublican‡ 9{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
IowaRepublican† 4RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
KansasRepublican↑ 4DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
KentuckyRepublican 6{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
LouisianaN|Split}} 6DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
MaineN|Split*†}} 2DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
MarylandDemocratic↑ 8RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
MassachusettsDemocratic↑ 9RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
MinnesotaN|Split}} 8DemocraticRepublicanDemocratic
MississippiRepublican 4RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
MissouriRepublican 8RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
Nebraska{{sort|O|Nonpartisan}} 3RepublicanNonpartisan
NevadaDemocratic 4DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
New HampshireN|Split}} 2RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
New MexicoDemocratic 3DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
New YorkDemocratic† 27DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
North CarolinaRepublican 13No vetoRepublicanRepublican
OhioRepublican† 16RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
OklahomaRepublican 5RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
OregonDemocratic 5DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
PennsylvaniaN|Split}} 18DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
Rhode IslandDemocratic† 2DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
South CarolinaRepublican 7RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
TennesseeRepublican 9{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
TexasRepublican 36RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
UtahRepublican† 4RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
VirginiaN|Split†}} 11DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
West VirginiaRepublican 3{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
WisconsinN|Split}} 8DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
State Control Seats Governor State Senate State House

An * indicates split control because a 2/3 super-majority vote is required in the legislature

A ↑ indicates that one party has control because of veto-proof majorities in the legislature

A † indicates that the state employs an advisory commission

A ‡ indicates that the state employs a backup commission

Congressional redistricting plans passed by independent commission

States with redistricting commissions
State Seats[14] Type
Arizona 9 Independent commission
California 53 Independent commission
Colorado 7 Independent commission
Idaho 2 Independent commission
Hawaii 2 Politician commission
Michigan 14 Independent commission
New Jersey 12 Politician commission
Washington 10 Independent commission

Four states with multiple members of the House of Representatives use independent commissions to draw Congressional districts. In Arizona and Washington, the four party leaders of the state house and state senate each select one member of the Independent Redistricting Commission, and these four members select a fifth member who is not affiliated with either party. In California, the Citizen's Redistricting Commission consists of five Democrats, five Republicans, and four individuals who are not members of either party. In Idaho, the four party leaders of the state house and state senate and the chairmen of the two most popular state parties (based on the results of the most recent gubernatorial vote) each select a member of the Commission for Reapportionment.[15]

Congressional redistricting plans passed by politician commission

Two states use politician commissions to draw Congressional districts. In Hawaii, the president of the state senate and the speaker of the state house each select two members of the Reapportionment Commission, while the minority parties in both chambers each appoint two members of the commission. The eight members of the commission then select a ninth member, who also chairs the commission. In New Jersey, the four party leaders of the state house and state senate and the party leaders of the two largest parties each choose two members of the Apportionment Commission, and the twelve members of the commission select a thirteenth member to chair the commission.[15]

State legislatures

Each state draws new legislative district boundaries every ten years. Every state except Nebraska has a bicameral legislative branch. Nebraska is also unique in that it has the only legislative body that is officially non-partisan.

Legislative redistricting methods

The states have wide latitude in re-drawing legislative districts, but the U.S. Supreme Court case of Reynolds v. Sims established that states must draw districts that are "substantially equal" in population to one another. Federal court cases have established that deviation between the largest and smallest districts generally cannot be greater than ten percent. Some states have laws requiring less deviation. Court cases have also required states to redistrict every ten years, although states can redistrict more often than that depending on their own statutes and constitutional provisions.[5] States are free to employ multi-member districts, and different districts can elect different numbers of legislators.[16] The Voting Rights Act of 1965 establishes protections against racial redistricting plans that would deny minority voters an equal opportunity to elect representatives of their choice. The Supreme Court case of Thornburg v. Gingles established a test to determine whether redistricting lines violate the Voting Rights Act.[7] Many states have also adopted other criteria, including compactness, contiguity, and the preservation of political subdivisions (such as cities or counties) or communities of interest.[8] Some states, including Arizona, require the drawing of competitive districts,[8] while other states require the nesting of state house districts within state senate districts.[17]

Fifteen states use independent or politician commissions to draw state legislative districts. In the other states, the legislature is ultimately charged with drawing new lines, although some states have advisory or back-up commissions. Connecticut, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Texas, and Oregon have backup commissions that draw district lines if the legislature is unable to agree on new districts. Iowa, Maine, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont employ advisory commissions. In Connecticut and Maine, a 2/3 super-majority vote in each house is required to create new districts, while in Connecticut, Florida, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Carolina, the governor cannot veto redistricting plans.[18] The legislatures of Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia can override gubernatorial vetoes with a simple majority vote,[10] giving governors in those states little leverage in the drawing of new district maps.

Most states must pass redistricting plans by the time of the filing deadlines for the 2022 election. Virginia and New Jersey must pass new plans in 2021. Louisiana and Mississippi have a 2023 deadline, while Montana has a 2024 deadline.[11] In many states, legislative districts are drawn with the intent to benefit certain political groups, including one of the two major political parties. The elections preceding 2022, especially the 2018 elections and the 2020 elections, will determine which parties and individuals control the redistricting process in states where the legislature draws the legislative districts.[11]

Control of legislative redistricting

State legislative redistricting plans passed by legislature

The table shows the partisan control of states in which state legislative redistricting is enacted via a bill passed by the legislature. Partisan control in at least some states is likely to change between the 2018 elections and the passage of redistricting plans in 2021 or 2022.[11] States in which the governor can technically veto the bill, but that veto can be overridden by a simple majority of the state legislature, are marked as "veto override."

Partisan control of state governments[12][19]
State Control Governor State Senate State House
AlabamaRepublican{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
ConnecticutN|Split*‡}}No vetoDemocraticDemocratic
DelawareDemocraticDemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
FloridaRepublicanNo vetoRepublicanRepublican
GeorgiaRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanRepublican
Illinois‡DemocraticDemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
IndianaRepublican‡{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
IowaRepublican†RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
KansasRepublican↑DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
KentuckyRepublican{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
LouisianaN|Split}}DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
MaineN|Split*†}}DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
MarylandDemocraticNo vetoDemocraticDemocratic
MassachusettsDemocratic↑RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
MinnesotaN|Split}}DemocraticRepublicanDemocratic
MississippiRepublican‡No vetoRepublicanRepublican
Nebraska{{sort|O|Nonpartisan}}RepublicanNonpartisan
NevadaDemocraticDemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
New HampshireN|Split}}RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
New MexicoDemocraticDemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
New YorkDemocratic†DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
North CarolinaRepublicanNo vetoRepublicanRepublican
North Dakota{{sort|R|Republican}}RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
OklahomaRepublican‡RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
OregonDemocratic‡DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
Rhode IslandDemocratic†DemocraticDemocraticDemocratic
South CarolinaRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanRepublican
South DakotaRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanRepublican
TennesseeRepublican{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
TexasRepublican‡RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
UtahRepublican†RepublicanRepublicanRepublican
VermontN|Split†}}RepublicanDemocraticDemocratic
VirginiaN|Split†}}DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
West VirginiaRepublican{{sort|N|Veto override}}RepublicanRepublican
WisconsinN|Split}}DemocraticRepublicanRepublican
WyomingRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanRepublican
State Control Governor State Senate State House

An * indicates split control because a 2/3 super-majority vote is required in the legislature

A ↑ indicates that one party has control because of veto-proof majorities in the legislature

A † indicates that the state employs an advisory commission

A ‡ indicates that the state employs a backup commission

State legislative redistricting plans passed by independent commission

States with redistricting commissions
Type States
Independent
Commission		 Alaska, Arizona,
California, Colorado,
Idaho, Michigan
Montana, Washington
Politician
Commission		 Arkansas
Hawaii, Missouri,
New Jersey, Ohio,
Pennsylvania

Six states use independent commissions to draw state legislative districts. In Alaska, the governor appoints two individuals and the Speaker of the House, senate president, and Chief Justice of the Alaska Supreme Court each appoint one individual to the Redistricting Board. In Arizona, Montana, and Washington, the four legislative party leaders each appoint one member to the redistricting commission, and these four individuals choose a fifth member to chair the commission. California's Citizen's Redistricting Commission consists of five Democrats, five Republicans, and four individuals who are not members of either party. Idaho's Commission for Reapportionment consists of six individuals appointed by the chairmen of the two largest parties (based on the most recent gubernatorial vote) and the four state legislative party leaders.[20]

State legislative redistricting plans passed by politician commission

Seven states, including Missouri, use politician commissions to draw state legislative districts. Arkansas's Board of Apportionment consists of the governor, secretary of state, and attorney general. The Ohio Redistricting Commission consists of the governor, auditor, secretary of state, and four individuals appointed by the state legislative party leaders. Hawaii's Reapportionment Commission consists of eight appointees of the state legislative party leaders, and these appointees select a ninth member to chair the commission. The New Jersey Apportionment Commission consists of twelve individuals appointed by the state legislative party leaders and the two major party chairmen, with these twelve individuals choosing a thirteenth member to chair the board. Pennsylvania's redistricting commission consists of four appointees chosen by the state legislative party leaders, and these four appointees choose a fifth member to chair the commission.[20]

In Missouri, the state auditor, state senate majority leader, and state senate minority leader choose a non-partisan state demographer to draw the maps for both chambers of the state legislature.[43] Missouri also has two redistricting commissions, one for each house, and each commission consists of individuals appointed by the governor based on lists created by the two major parties.[20] The demographer's proposed maps can be altered if 70% of the commissioners approve of the changes.[21]

Redistricting organizations and funds

Democrats were particularly unhappy with the results of the 2012 House elections in which Democratic House candidates received more votes than Republican House candidates, but Republicans retained control of the chamber.[22] Organizations such as the Democratic Governors Association and the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee have established funds dedicated to helping Democrats in the 2020 round of redistricting.[22][23]

Democrats also established the National Democratic Redistricting Committee to coordinate Democratic redistricting efforts.[24] Republicans established a similar group, the National Republican Redistricting Trust.[25]

Changes since 2012

In the 2013 case, Shelby County v. Holder, the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act, which was a coverage formula that determined which states and counties required preclearance from the Justice Department before making changes to voting laws and procedures.[26] The formula had covered states with a history of minority voter disenfranchisement, and the preclearance procedure was designed to block discriminatory voting practices.[26]

In 2015, Ohio voters approved a ballot measure changing the composition of the commission charged with drawing state legislative districts, adding two legislative appointees to the commission and creating rules and guidelines designed to make partisan gerrymandering more difficult.[27] In May 2018, Ohio voters approved a proposal that modified the state's congressional redistricting processes.[28]

In November 2018, voters in Colorado and Michigan approved of a proposal to establish an independent redistricting commission for congressional and state legislative districts in their respective states. Missouri voters approved of a proposal to have a "non-partisan state demographer" draw state legislative districts.[29]

See also

  • Gerrymandering in the United States
  • Redistricting
  • Electoral geography

References

1. ^{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=William J.|last2=Walling|first2=Jeremy|title=The Political Battle over Congressional Redistricting|date=7 June 2013|publisher=Lexington Books|pages=1–4|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3dEaMt1NKYYC&dq=2022+redistricting|accessdate=10 November 2016|isbn=9780739169841}}
2. ^Miller, pp. 10-11
3. ^{{cite news|last1=Wilson|first1=Reid|title=Nevada Republicans could take up mid-decade redistricting|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2015/02/04/nevada-republicans-could-take-up-mid-decade-redistricting/|accessdate=12 November 2016|publisher=Washington Post|date=4 February 2015}}
4. ^1 2 {{cite news|last1=Skelley|first1=Geoffrey|title=Updated 2020 Reapportionment Projections|url=http://www.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/articles/updated-2020-reapportionment-projections/|accessdate=28 October 2016|publisher=Sabato's Crystal Ball|date=29 January 2015}}
5. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Levitt|first1=Justin|last2=McDonald|first2=Michael|title=Taking the "Re" out of Redistricting: State Constitutional Provisions on Redistricting Timing|journal=The Georgetown Law Journal|volume=95|issue=4|pages=1247–1254|url=http://georgetownlawjournal.org/files/pdf/95-4/levitt_mcdonald.pdf|accessdate=12 November 2016}}
6. ^{{cite news|last1=Schaller|first1=Thomas|title=Multi-Member Districts: Just a Thing of the Past?|url=http://www.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/articles/multi-member-legislative-districts-just-a-thing-of-the-past/|accessdate=31 October 2016|publisher=Sabato's Crystal Ball|date=21 March 2013}}
7. ^1 {{cite web|last1=Levitt|first1=Justin|title=Where are the lines drawn?|url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/where.php|website=All About Redistricting|publisher=Loyola Law School|accessdate=31 October 2016}}
8. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|title=REDISTRICTING CRITERIA|url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/redistricting/redistricting-criteria.aspx|publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures|accessdate=12 November 2016|date=26 January 2016}}
9. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite web|last1=Levitt|first1=Justin|title=Who draws the lines?|url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/who.php|accessdate=28 October 2016|publisher=Loyola Law School}}
10. ^1 {{cite news|last1=Haughey|first1=John|title=State-By-State Guide To Gubernatorial Veto Types|url=http://cqrollcall.com/statetrackers/state-by-state-guide-to-gubernatorial-veto-types/|accessdate=19 November 2016|publisher=CQ Roll Call|date=14 November 2016}}
11. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite news |title=ELECTION DATES FOR LEGISLATORS AND GOVERNORS WHO WILL DO REDISTRICTING |url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/redistricting/election-dates-for-legislators-governors-who-will-do-redistricting.aspx |accessdate=1 November 2018 |publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures |date=25 May 2018}}
12. ^1 {{cite web |title=2018 State & Legislative Partisan Composition |url=http://www.ncsl.org/Portals/1/Documents/Elections/Legis_Control_110718_26973.pdf |website=NCSL |accessdate=7 November 2018}}
13. ^{{cite web |title=Party control - congressional lines |url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/who-partyfed20.php |website=All About Redistricting |publisher=Justin Levitt |accessdate=9 November 2018}}
14. ^1 The number of U.S. Representatives the state has, prior to the 2022 redistricting.
15. ^1 {{cite web|title=REDISTRICTING COMMISSIONS: CONGRESSIONAL PLANS|url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/redistricting/redistricting-commissions-congressional-plans.aspx|website=National Conference of State Legislatures|accessdate=28 October 2016}}
16. ^{{cite news|last1=Goodman|first1=Josh|title=The Disappearance of Multi-Member Constituencies|url=http://www.governing.com/blogs/politics/The-Disappearance-of-Multi-Member-Constituencies.html|accessdate=31 October 2016|publisher=Governing|date=7 July 2011}}
17. ^{{cite book|last1=Moncrief|first1=Gary F.|title=Reapportionment and Redistricting in the West|date=2011|publisher=Lexington Books|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bdBsm4YL9h4C|accessdate=12 November 2016|isbn=9780739167618}}
18. ^{{cite web|last1=Levitt|first1=Justin|title=Who draws the lines?|url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/who-state.php|accessdate=28 October 2016|publisher=Loyola Law School}}
19. ^{{cite web |title=Party control - state legislative lines |url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/who-partystate20.php |website=All About Redistricting |publisher=Justin Levitt |accessdate=9 November 2018}}
20. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=REDISTRICTING COMMISSIONS: STATE LEGISLATIVE PLANS|url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/redistricting/2009-redistricting-commissions-table.aspx|website=NCSL|accessdate=31 October 2016}}
21. ^1 {{cite news |last1=Bailey |first1=JJ |title=Voters approve Missouri Amendment 1, overhauling redistricting process and campaign finance |url=https://www.kmov.com/news/voters-approve-missouri-amendment-overhauling-redistricting-process-and-campaign-finance/article_03c75424-e240-11e8-a662-6fe3a7563d7c.html |accessdate=7 November 2018 |publisher=KMOV4 |date=6 November 2018}}
22. ^1 {{cite news|last1=Levitz|first1=Eric|title=Democrats aim to ‘unrig’ congressional maps in 2020|url=http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/democrats-aim-unrig-congressional-maps-2020|accessdate=31 October 2016|publisher=MSNBC|date=4 August 2015}}
23. ^{{cite news|last1=Sarlin|first1=Benjy|title=Forget 2016: Democrats already have a plan for 2020|url=http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/2016-democrats-already-have-plan-2020|accessdate=31 October 2016|publisher=MSNBC|date=26 August 2014}}
24. ^{{cite news|last1=Dovere|first1=Edward-Isaac|title=Obama, Holder to lead post-Trump redistricting campaign|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2016/10/obama-holder-redistricting-gerrymandering-229868|accessdate=31 October 2016|publisher=Politico|date=17 October 2016}}
25. ^{{cite news|last1=Connolly|first1=Griffin|title=Republican Group Ready to Spend Big on Redistricting|url=http://www.rollcall.com/news/politics/republican-group-ready-spend-big-redistricting|accessdate=29 September 2017|publisher=Roll Call|date=29 September 2017}}
26. ^1 {{cite web|last1=Levitt|first1=Justin|title=Who draws the lines?-Preclearance|url=http://redistricting.lls.edu/who-preclear.php|website=All About Redistricting|accessdate=15 November 2016}}
27. ^{{cite news|last1=Siegel|first1=Jim|title=Voters approve issue to reform Ohio's redistricting process|url=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/public/2015/election/ohio-state-issue-1-redistricting.html|accessdate=19 November 2016|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=4 November 2015}}
28. ^1 {{cite news |last1=Wilson |first1=Reid |title=Ohio voters pass redistricting reform initiative |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/386839-ohio-voters-pass-redistricting-reform-initiative |accessdate=7 November 2018 |publisher=The Hill |date=8 May 2018}}
29. ^{{cite news |last1=Moon |first1=Emily |title=HOW DID CITIZEN-LED REDISTRICTING INITIATIVES FARE IN THE MID-TERMS? |url=https://psmag.com/news/how-did-citizen-led-redistricting-initiatives-fare-in-the-mid-terms |accessdate=7 November 2018 |publisher=Pacific Standard |date=7 November 2018}}

External links

  • {{cite web |title=50 State Guide to Redistricting |url=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/50-state-guide-redistricting |website=Brennan Center for Justice |accessdate=4 November 2018}}
  • {{cite web |title=The Atlas of Redistricting |url=https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/redistricting-maps/ |website=FiveThirtyEight |accessdate=1 November 2018}}
{{Redistricting (US)}}

2 : Redistricting|Electoral geography
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