“Vietnamese cuisine”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Vietnamese cuisine encompasses the foods and beverages of Vietnam, and features a combination of five fundamental tastes (Vietnamese: ngũ vị) in the overall meal.^[1] Each Vietnamese dish has a distinctive flavor which reflects one or more of these elements. Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, bean sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruit and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chili, lime, and Thai basil leaves.^[2] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is greatly admired for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of dairy and oil, complementary textures, and reliance on herbs and vegetables. With the balance between fresh herbs and meats and a selective use of spices to reach a fine taste, Vietnamese food is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.^[3] Due to the Chinese domination of Vietnam, Vietnamese cuisine is heavily influenced by traditional Chinese medicine.

Philosophical importance

As the people respect balance rules, Vietnamese cuisine always combines fragrance, taste, and colour. Vietnamese cuisine always has five elements which are known for its balance in each of these features. Many Vietnamese dishes include five fundamental taste senses (ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (earth), corresponding to five organs (ngũ tạng): gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine, stomach, and urinary bladder.

Vietnamese dishes also include five types of nutrients (ngũ chất): powder, water or liquid, mineral elements, protein and fat. Vietnamese cooks try to have five colours (ngũ sắc): white (metal), green (wood), yellow (earth), red (fire) and black (water) in their dishes.

Dishes in Vietnam appeal to gastronomes via the five senses (năm giác quan): food arrangement attracts eyes, sounds come from crisp ingredients, five spices are detected on the tongue, aromatic ingredients coming mainly from herbs stimulate the nose, and some meals, especially finger food, can be perceived by touching.^[4] Whether complex or simple, Vietnamese dishes also offer satisfying mouthfeel during the dining enjoyment.

Five-element correspondence

Vietnamese cuisine is influenced by the Asian principle of five elements and Mahābhūta.

Yin-yang balance

The principle of yin and yang is applied in composing a meal in a way that provides a balance that is beneficial for the body. While contrasting texture and flavors are important, the principle primarily concerns the "heating" and "cooling" properties of ingredients. Certain dishes are served in their respective seasons to provide contrasts in temperature and spiciness of the food and environment.^[6] Some examples are:^[7]

Cultural importance

Salt is used as the connection between the worlds of the living and the dead. Bánh phu thê is used to remind new couples of perfection and harmony at their weddings. Food is often placed at the ancestral altar as an offering to the dead on special occasions (such as Lunar New Year). Cooking and eating play an extremely important role in Vietnamese culture. The word ăn (to eat) is included in a great number of proverbs and has a large range of semantic extensions.

Regional variations

The mainstream culinary traditions in all three regions of Vietnam share some fundamental features:

While sharing some key features, Vietnamese culinary tradition differs from region to region.^[8]

In northern Vietnam, a colder climate limits the production and availability of spices. As a result, the foods there are often less spicy than those in other regions.^[9] Black pepper is used in place of chilis as the most popular ingredient to produce spicy flavors. In general, northern Vietnamese cuisine is not bold in any particular taste — sweet, salty, spicy, bitter, or sour. Most northern Vietnamese foods feature light and balanced flavors that result from subtle combinations of many different flavoring ingredients. The use of meats such as pork, beef, and chicken were relatively limited in the past. Freshwater fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, such as prawns, squids, shrimps, crabs, clams, and mussels, are widely used. Many notable dishes of northern Vietnam are crab-centered (e.g., bún riêu). Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce, and limes are among the main flavoring ingredients. Being the cradle of Vietnamese civilization,{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} northern Vietnam produces many signature dishes of Vietnam, such as bún riêu and bánh cuốn, which were carried to central and southern Vietnam through Vietnamese migration.^[10] Other famous Vietnamese dishes that originated from the North, particularly from Hanoi include "bún chả" (rice noodle with grilled marinated pork), phở gà (rice noodle with chicken), chả cá Lã Vọng (rice noodle with grilled fish).

The abundance of spices produced by central Vietnam’s mountainous terrain makes this region’s cuisine notable for its spicy food, which sets it apart from the two other regions of Vietnam where foods are mostly not spicy. Once the capital of the last dynasty of Vietnam, Huế's culinary tradition features highly decorative and colorful food, reflecting the influence of ancient Vietnamese royal cuisine. The region’s cuisine is also notable for its sophisticated meals consisting of many complex dishes served in small portions. Chili peppers and shrimp sauces are among the frequently used ingredients. Some Vietnamese signature dishes produced in central Vietnam are bún bò Huế and bánh khoái.

The warm weather and fertile soil of southern Vietnam create an ideal condition for growing a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and livestock. As a result, foods in southern Vietnam are often vibrant and flavorful, with liberal uses of garlic, shallots, and fresh herbs. Sugar is added to food more than in the other regions.^[11] The preference for sweetness in southern Vietnam can also be seen through the widespread use of coconut milk in southern Vietnamese cuisine. Vast shorelines make seafood a natural staple for people in this region. Some signature seafood dishes from southern Vietnam include bánh khọt and bún mắm.^[12]^[13]

Cooking techniques

Typical Vietnamese family meal

All dishes except individual bowls of rice are communal and are to be shared in the middle of the table. It is also customary for the younger to ask/wait for the elders to eat first and the women sit right next to the rice pot to serve rice for other people. They also pick up food for each other as an action of care.

Feast

A feast (Vietnamese: cỗ, tiệc) is a significant event for families or villages, usually up to 12 people for each table. A feast is prepared for weddings, funerals, and festivals, including the longevity wishing ceremony. In a feast, ordinary foods are not served, but boiled rice is still used.

A Vietnamese feast has two courses: main course (món mặn - salty dish) and dessert (món ngọt - sweet dish). All dishes, except for individual bowls of rice, are enjoyed collectively. All main course dishes are served simultaneously rather than one after another. The major dish of the main course is placed in the center of the tables, usually big pots of soup or a hot pot.

A basic feast (cỗ một tầng) consists of 10 dishes: five in bowls (năm bát): bóng (fried fish belly), miến (cellophane noodles), măng (bamboo shoot), mọc (meatball), chim or gà tần (bird or chicken stew dishes) and five on plates (năm đĩa): giò (Vietnamese sausage), chả, gà or vịt luộc (boiled chicken or duck), nộm (Vietnamese salad) and xào (stir-fried dishes). This kind of feast is traditional and is organised only in northern Vietnam. Other variations are found in central and southern Vietnam.

Four dishes essential in the feast of Tết are chả giò (spring rolls), nem (In Northern Vietnam, nem refers to a spring roll called nem cuon or nem ran. In Southern Vietnam, nem mainly refer to nem chua [fermented pork rolls.]), ninh (stew dishes) and mọc (noodle soup). At this time, the feast for offering ancestors includes sticky rice, boiled chicken, Vietnamese rice wine, and other preferred foods by ancestors in the past. Gifts are given before guests leave the feast.

Cuisine

In the Nguyễn dynasty, the 50 best chefs from all over the kingdom were selected for the Thượng Thiện board to serve the king. There were three meals per day - 12 dishes at breakfast and 66 dishes for lunch and dinner (including 50 main dishes and 16 sweets). An essential dish was bird's nest soup (tổ yến). Other dishes included shark fin (vi cá), abalone (bào ngư), deer's tendon (gân nai), bears' hands (tay gấu), and rhinoceros' skin (da tê giác). Water had to come from the Hàm Long well, the Báo Quốc pagoda, the Cam Lồ well (near the base of Thúy Vân mountain), or from the source of the Hương River. Rice was the de variety from the An Cựu imperial rice field. Phước Tích clay pots for cooking rice were used only a single time before disposal. No one was allowed to have any contact with the cooked dishes except for the cooks and Thượng Thiện board members. The dishes were first served to eunuchs, then the king's wives, after which they were offered to the king. The king enjoyed meals (ngự thiện) alone in a comfortable, music-filled space.^[15]

Popularity

Outside of Vietnam, Vietnamese cuisine is widely available in countries with strong Vietnamese immigrant communities, such as Australia, the United States, Canada, and France. Vietnamese cuisine is also popular in Japan, Korea, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany,UK, Poland, and Russia, and in areas with dense Asian populations.

Television shows featuring Vietnamese food have increased in popularity. Luke Nguyen from Australia currently features a television show, Luke Nguyen's Vietnam, dedicated on showcasing and instructing how to cook Vietnamese dishes.

On The Great Food Truck Race, a Vietnamese sandwich truck called Nom Nom Truck received the most money in the first five episodes.

Proverbs

Food in relation to lifestyle

Vietnamese cuisine is reflective of the Vietnamese lifestyle, from the preparation to how the food is served. Going through long phases of war and political conflict, as well as cultural shifts, the vast majority of the Vietnamese people have been living in poverty. Therefore, the ingredients for Vietnamese food are often very inexpensive but nonetheless, the way they are cooked together to create a yin-yang balance makes the food simple in appearance but rich in flavor.

Due to economic conditions, maximizing the use of ingredients to save money has become a tradition in Vietnamese cooking. In earlier decades and even nowadays in rural areas, every part of a cow is used, from the muscle meat to the intestines; nothing is wasted. The higher quality cuts from farmed animals (cows, pigs) would be cooked in stirfry, soup or other dishes, while the secondary cuts would be used in blood sausages or soup. The same goes for vegetables like scallions: the leafy part is diced into small bits which are used to add flavor to the food while the crunchy stalk and roots are replanted.

Nước mắm (fish sauce) is the most commonly used and iconic condiment in Vietnamese cooking. It is made from fermented raw fish, and is served with most of the Vietnamese dishes. Vietnamese cuisines are not known for ingredients with top quality, but rather for the very inexpensive and simple scraps that are creatively mixed together to create dishes with bold flavor. A traditional southern Vietnamese meal usually includes cơm trắng (plain white rice), cá kho tộ (catfish in a clay pot), canh chua cá lóc (sour soup with snakehead fish), and it would be incomplete without fish sauce served as a condiment. Dishes are prepared less with appearance in mind, but are served family style to bring everyone together after a long day of work.

Despite being a small country in Southeast Asia, the foods from each region in Vietnam carry their distinctive and unique characteristics that reflect the geographical and living conditions of the people there. The traditional southern Vietnamese meal is made up of fresh ingredients that only the fertile Mekong Delta could provide, such as cá lóc, and a wide range of tropical fruit like mangosteen, mango, and dragon fruit. The southern style diet is very 'green', with vegetables, fish and tropical fruits as the main ingredients. Central Vietnam is the region in which food is prepared with the strongest, boldest flavors. This region is constantly under harsh weather conditions all throughout the year, so people there do not have as many green ingredients as others do in the north and south of Vietnam. Instead, the coastline around the central Vietnam area is known for its salt and fish sauce industries; these two condiments are central to their daily diets. Northern Vietnamese cuisine has a strong Chinese influence, and its iconic dish is phở. While rice is a staple in the southern Vietnamese diet, the north has a preference for noodles. Due to the drastic differences in climate and lifestyles throughout the three main regions of Vietnam, the foods vary. Northern Vietnamese cooking is the least bold in flavor compared to the foods from central and southern Vietnam.

Popular dishes

When Vietnamese dishes are referred to in English, it is generally by the Vietnamese name without the diacritics. Some dishes have gained descriptive English names, as well.

Popular Vietnamese dishes include{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} :

Noodle soups

Vietnamese cuisine boasts a huge variety of noodle soups, each with distinct influences, origins and flavours. A common characteristic of many of these soups is a rich broth.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Soup and cháo (congees)

Rice dishes

Sticky rice dishes

Bánh

The Vietnamese name for pastries is bánh. Many of the pastries are wrapped in various leaves (bamboo, banana, dong, gai) and boiled or steamed. One of the historic dishes, dating to the mythical founding of the Vietnamese state is square "cake" (bánh chưng). As it is a savory dish and thus not a true pastry, bánh chưng and the accompanying bánh dày are laden with heaven and earth symbolism. These dishes are associated with offerings around the Vietnamese New Year (Tết). Additionally, as a legacy of French colonial rule and influence, bûche de Noël is a popular dessert served during the Christmas season.

Wraps and rolls

Sandwiches and pastries

Meat dishes

Seafood dishes

Salads

Curries

Pickled vegetable dishes

Fermented fish or shrimp

Mắm, a Vietnamese term for fermented fish or shrimp, is used as main course, ingredients or condiments. The types of fish most commonly used to make mắm are catfish, snakeheads, and mackerels. The fish flesh remains intact (this is how it is different from nước mắm), and can be eaten cooked or uncooked, with or without vegetables and condiments.

Sour fermented meat dishes

Nem chua, a Vietnamese fermented meat served as is or fried, is made from pork meat, coated by fried rice (thính gạo), mixed with pork skin and then wrapped in country gooseberry leaves (lá chùm ruột) or Erythrina orientalis leaves (lá vông nem). ^[21]The preservation process takes about three to five days.

Sausages

Vietnamese sausage, giò, is usually made from fresh ground pork and beef. Sausage makers may use the meat, skin or ear. Fish sauce is added before banana leaves are used to wrap the mixture. The last step is boiling. For common sausage, 1 kg of meat is boiled for an hour. For chả quế, the boiled meat mixture will then be roasted with cinnamon.

Vegetarian dishes

Vegetarian dishes in Vietnam often have the same names as their meat equivalents, e.g. Phở Bò. But in restaurants with « chay » (vegetarian) sign in front, those dishes are served with tofu instead of meat. Nearly every soup, sandwich and streetfood has its vegetarian correspondent.

Sometimes you can also see notations like "phở chay", "bánh mì chay" (vegetarian sandwich) or "cơm chay" (vegetarian rice).

The vegetarian food in comparison the normal dishes are almost always cheaper, often it's half the normal price.

Chay restaurants are mostly frequented by religious Vietnamese people and are rarely found in touristic areas.

Desserts

Fruit preserves

Vietnamese use fruits in season. When the season is passing, they make candied fruit, called ô mai and fruit preserves, called mứt. The original taste of ô mai is sour, sweet, salty, and spicy. The most famous kind of ô mai is ô mai mơ, made from apricots harvested from the forest around Perfume Pagoda (Chùa Hương), Hà Tây Province. This ô mai consists of apricot covered by ginger, sugar, and liquorice root slivers.

Tofu

Tofu (đậu phụ) is widely used in Vietnamese cuisine. It is boiled, fried (sprinkled with ground shrimp or oil-dipped minced spring onion) or used as ingredient in a variety of dishes.

Other soybean products range from soy sauce (nước tương- usually light soy sauce), fermented bean paste (tương), and fermented bean curd (đậu phụ nhự or chao) to douhua (soft tofu sweet soup- tàu hũ nước đường, or tào phớ).

Condiments and sauces

Condiments

Vietnamese usually use raw vegetables, rau sống, or rau ghém (sliced vegetable) as condiments for their dishes to combine properly with each main dish in flavour. Dishes in which rau sống is indispensable are bánh xèo and hot pot. The vegetables principally are herbs and wild edible vegetables gathered from forests and family gardens. Leaves and buds are the most common parts of vegetables used. Most of the vegetables have medicinal value.^[22]

Rau sống includes lettuce, raw bean sprout, herbs, shredded banana flower, green banana, water spinach, mango bud and guava leaves.

Pairing

Sauces

Food colourings

Traditionally, the colouring of Vietnamese food comes from natural ingredients, however today there's an increase in the use of artificial food dye agents for food colouring, in Vietnam.

Colourings can be absorbed by mixing ground colourings or colouring liquid or wrapping before boiling to get the extracts. When colouring dishes, the tastes and smells of colourings must also be considered.

Herbs and spices

Beverages

Exotic dishes

The use of ingredients typically uncommon or taboo in most countries is one of the quintessential attributes that make Vietnamese cuisine unique. While unusual ingredients can only be found in exotic restaurants in many countries, Vietnamese cuisine is deemed atypical in that the usage of these ingredients can play a customary role in daily family dishes regardless of social class.

A common and inexpensive breakfast dish that can be found in any wet market, balut (hột vịt lộn) is a fertilized duck egg with a nearly developed embryo inside, which is boiled and eaten in the shell. It is typically served with fresh herbs: rau răm or Vietnamese coriander, salt, and black pepper; lime juice is another popular additive, when available. A more unusual version of balut dish – fetus quail (trứng cút lộn)- is a snack favored by many Vietnamese students. Paddy crab and paddy snail are the main ingredients in bún riêu ốc – a popular noodle dish – and in some everyday soup dishes (canh) and braised food (món bung). Family meals with silk worms (nhộng), banana flowers (hoa chuối), sparrows, doves, fermented fish and shrimp (mắm cá, mắm tôm tép) are not rare sights. Seasonal favorites include ragworms (rươi), which are made into many dishes such as fried rươi omelet (chả rươi), fermented rươi sauce (mắm rươi), steamed rươi (rươi hấp), stir-fried rươi with radish or bamboo shoot (rươi xào củ niễng măng tươi hay củ cải).

Northern Vietnamese cuisine is also notable for its wide range of meat choices. Exotic meats such as dog meat, cat meat,^[23] rat meat,^[24] snake,^[25] soft-shell turtle, deer, and domestic goat are sold in street-side restaurants and generally paired with alcoholic beverages. A taboo in many Western countries and in southern Vietnam, consumption of dog meat and cat meat is common throughout the northern part of the country and is believed to raise the libido in men. Paddy mouse meat – barbecued, braised, stir- or deep-fried – is a rarer dish that can be found in many Vietnamese rural areas or even high-end city restaurants. Furthermore, television chef Andrew Zimmern visited northern Vietnam in the 12th episode of his popular show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern.^[26]^[27] Cobra beating heart and dried bones, silk worms, and bull penis are some of the dishes he sampled. He also tried porcupine.^[28]

Anthony Bourdain, the host chef of Travel Channel's No Reservations, wrote in April 2005: "...everything is used – and nothing wasted in Vietnam."^[16] Animal parts that are often disposed of in many Western countries are used fully in Vietnamese cooking. Organs, including lungs, livers, hearts, intestines and bladders of pigs, cattle, and chickens are sold at even higher prices than their meat. Chicken testicles and undeveloped eggs are stir-fried with vegetables and served as an everyday dish.

Many of the traditional northern Lunar New Year dishes such as thịt đông, giò thủ, and canh măng móng giò involve the use of pig heads, tongues, throats and feet.^[31] Pig and beef tails, as well as chicken heads, necks and feet, are Vietnamese favorite beer dishes. Bóng, used as an ingredient in canh bóng – a kind of soup, is pig skin baked until popped. Steamed pig brains can be found almost anywhere along a Vietnamese street. Also in the northern part of Vietnam, different kinds of animal blood can be made into a dish called tiết canh by whisking the blood with fish sauce and cold water in a shallow dish along with finely chopped, cooked duck innards (such as gizzards), sprinkled with crushed peanuts and chopped herbs such as Vietnamese coriander, mint, etc. It is then cooled until the blood coagulates into a soft, jelly-like mixture and served raw.

Coconut Worms, or đuông dừa, is a delicacy found widely in the Trà Vinh Province of Vietnam. They are the larvae form of the palm weevil and are eaten live within a salty fish sauce with chili peppers.^[32]

Common ingredients

Vegetables

Fruits

Herbs (rau thơm)

Vietnamese utensils

Historical influences

Due to historical contact with China, Vietnamese cuisine shares many of its characteristics with Chinese cuisine. In culinary traditions, the Chinese introduced to Vietnam many dishes, including hoành thánh (wonton), xá xíu (char siu), há cảo (har gow), hủ tiếu (ka tieu), mì (wheat noodles), bò bía (popiah), bánh quẩy (youtiao), mooncake and bánh pía (Suzhou style mooncake), bánh tổ (nian gao), sủi dìn (tang yuan), bánh bò, bánh bao (baozi), cơm chiên Dương Châu (Yangzhou-fried rice), and mì xào (chow mein). The Vietnamese adopted these foods and added their own styles and flavors to the foods. Ethnic minorities in the mountainous region near the China–Vietnam border also adopted some foods from China. Ethnic Tày and Nùng in Lạng Sơn Province adopted thịt lợn quay (roasted pork) and khau nhục (braised pork belly) from China. Some New World vegetables, such as chili peppers and corn (maize), also made their way to Vietnam from the Ming dynasty.

The French introduced baguettes to Vietnam, which were then combined with Vietnamese stuffing to become a popular fast food in Vietnam called bánh mì and known overseas as “Vietnamese baguettes", though different from the French counterpart in that the baguette is normally made entirely of rice flour. The French also brought to Vietnam onions, cauliflower, lettuce, potatoes, tarragon, carrot, artichoke, asparagus, and coffee. Onions are called hành tây (literally “western shallots”), asparagus as măng tây (western bamboo shoots) and potatoes are called khoai tây (western yam) in Vietnamese, which reflect their origin before arriving in Vietnam. French-influenced dishes are numerous and not limited to: sa lát (salad), pâté, patê sô (a Brittany pasty called "pâté chaud"), bánh sừng trâu (croissant), bánh flan, ya ua (yogurt), rôti (rotisserie), bơ (butter), vịt nấu cam (duck à l'orange), ốp lết (omelette), ốp la (œufs au plat), phạc xi (farcies), bít tết (beefsteak), sốt vang (cooking with wine), dăm bông (jambon), and xúc xích (saucisse). Due to influences from French colonization, the French Indochinese countries of Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia have several shared dishes and beverages including baguettes and coffee. The French also introduced use of dairy products in Vietnamese-French fusion dishes.

Vietnamese cuisine also has influences from its neighbor Champa, Malaysia and Cambodia. The use of coconut milk and fish sauce and various central dishes such as bánh khọt were influenced by Cham cuisine. Spices including curries were also introduced to Vietnam by Malay and Indian traders.^[33] Though not common in the north, cà ri is a quite popular dish in central and southern Vietnam. The most common form is chicken curry and to a lesser extent, goat curry. Chicken curry is an indispensable dish in many social gathering events, such as weddings, funerals, graduations, and the yearly death anniversary of a loved one. Similar to Cambodia, curry in Vietnam is eaten either with the French baguettes, steamed rice, or round rice noodles (rice vermicelli). Mắm bồ hóc or prahok, adopted from ethnic Khmer in Southern Vietnam, is used as a central ingredient of a Vietnamese rice noodle soup called bún nước lèo which originated with ethnic Khmers in Vietnam and is not found in Cambodia.

Due to contact with communist countries from Eastern Europe, the Vietnamese adopted dishes such as stuffed cabbage soup, thịt đông (Kholodets), sa lát Nga (Russian salad) and Czech beer.

Tet Holiday specialty

The week-long Tết holiday marks the beginning of the Lunar New Year and is time for family gathering and fresh optimism for the coming year. And nothing is more synonymous with Tết than Bánh Chưng. Invented by prince Lang Lieu from Hung King Dynasty to symbolize the earth, Bánh Chưng is a square-shaped rice cake made with glutinous rice, mung beans, and pork. Wrapped in banana leaves, Bánh Chưng is boiled for a day, resulting in a rice cake that is soft, moist, and sticky. Bánh Chưng is often served with pickles including white radish, green papaya, chile peppers, carrots, and leeks.

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/vietnam/pro-food.htm|title=Vietnamese Food|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}
2. ^{{cite web|url = http://www.wokme.com/ingredients/vietnamese.htm | work = WokMe | year = 2011 |title = Vietnamese Ingredients | accessdate = 2 December 2011}}
3. ^{{cite web | author = Annie Corapi | work = CNN Health | url = http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/25/healthiest.ethnic.cuisines/index.html | year = 2011 | accessdate = 3 December 2011 | title = The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines}}
4. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.vietnamfood.org/overview/gastronomic-tourism.html | work = Vietnam Online | accessdate = 2 December 2011 | title = Gastronomic Tourism}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vietnamtravelinformation.net/About-vietnamese-food/philosophy-of-vietnamese-cuisine.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=17 November 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122014152/http://www.vietnamtravelinformation.net/About-vietnamese-food/philosophy-of-vietnamese-cuisine.html |archivedate=22 November 2013 }}
6. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.vietnamtravel.net/specials/vietnamese-food | title = VIETNAMESE FOOD | work = Vietnam Travel | accessdate = 3 December 2011}}
7. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.vietnammonpaysnatal.fr/e_art_culinaire.html | title = Yin – Yang in Vietnamese culinary art | work = Viet Nam mon pays natal | accessdate = 3 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120405064549/http://www.vietnammonpaysnatal.fr/e_art_culinaire.html | archive-date = 5 April 2012 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}
8. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.activetravelvietnam.com/culture_customs/typical_vietnamese_foods.html | work = ActiveTravelVIetnam.com | title = Typical Vietnamese Foods | accessdate = 3 December 2011}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://thecitylane.com/hanoi-food-guide/|title=Hanoi Food Guide - The City Lane|date=14 July 2013|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}
10. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.saveur.com/article/Travels/Heaven-in-a-Bowl#errors | author = Andrea Nguyen | title = Heaven in a Bowl: The Original Pho | accessdate = 28 December 2011 | date = 13 March 2011}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://thecitylane.com/ho-chi-minh-city-food-guide/|title=Ho Chi Minh City Food Guide - The City Lane|date=16 June 2013|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://dulich.tuoitre.vn/am-thuc/tham-pho-bien-vung-tau-dung-quen-an-banh-khot-969483.htm|title=Thăm phố biển Vũng Tàu đừng quên ăn bánh khọt|trans-title=When going to Vũng Tàu, don't forget to eat bánh khọt|date=2015-09-15|accessdate=2017-10-04|publisher=Tuoi Tre News|author=Huyền Trần|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004191110/http://dulich.tuoitre.vn/am-thuc/tham-pho-bien-vung-tau-dung-quen-an-banh-khot-969483.htm|archive-date=4 October 2017|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
13. ^{{cite web|url=http://thanhnien.vn/doi-song/am-thuc/huong-dan-nau-bun-mam-dam-da-huong-vi-mien-tay-592819.html|title=Hướng dẫn nấu bún mắm đậm đà hương vị miền Tây|trans-title=How to cook Mekong Delta-style bún mắm|date=2015-08-04|accessdate=2017-10-04|publisher=Thanh Nien News|author=Võ Mạnh Lân}}
14. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.guidevietnam.com/travel/vietnamese-food-cuisine.html | author = Nguyen Vu Hanh Dung and Phan Dieu Linh | title = The Food of Vietnam – Vietnamese Food | work = GuideVietnam.com | accessdate = 3 December 2011}}
15. ^{{cite web|url=http://vietnamfoodtour.com|title=Vietnam Food Tour - Travel Like Local - Vietnam Tour Company|first=Vietnam Food|last=Tour|website=vietnamfoodtour.com}}
16. ^¹{{cite news|url = https://www.ft.com/content/9c550c20-97bf-11d9-912c-00000e2511c8 | newspaper = Financial Times | author = Anthony Bourdain | date = 2005-03-18 |title = Hungry for more of Vietnam | accessdate = 2016-10-27}}
17. ^{{cite web|last=Dang|first=Vinh|title=Bún 101|url=http://talk.onevietnam.org/bun-101/|work=Vietnam Talking Points|publisher=One Vietnam Network|accessdate=16 September 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830121229/http://talk.onevietnam.org/bun-101/|archivedate=30 August 2011|df=dmy-all}}
18. ^{{Cite web|url=http://vietspices.blogspot.com/2015/02/banh-nam-flat-steamed-rice-dumpling.html|title=The Spices Of Life . . .: Bánh Nậm (Flat Steamed Rice Dumpling)|last=Annette|first=Loan Aka|date=2015-02-25|website=The Spices Of Life . . .|access-date=2017-02-05}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://vietnamenu.com/vietnamese-food-banh-mi-op-la.html|title=Banh Mi Op La - Vietnamese Fried Egg Sandwich - VietnaMenu|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}
20. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.theravenouscouple.com/2009/06/banh-tom-sweet-potato-shrimp-fritters.html|title=The Ravenous Couple » Banh Tom (Sweet Potato Shrimp Fritters)|website=www.theravenouscouple.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-02-05}}
21. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.theravenouscouple.com/2010/01/nem-chua-recipe-vietnamese-fermentedcured-pork.html|title=The Ravenous Couple » Nem Chua Recipe Vietnamese Fermented/Cured Pork|website=www.theravenouscouple.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-02-05}}
22. ^{{Cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js7159e/|title=Medicinal plants in Viet Nam|website=apps.who.int|access-date=2017-02-05}}
23. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailymeal.com/9-countries-eat-cats-and-dogs-slideshow|title=9 Countries That Eat Cats and Dogs (Slideshow)|work=The Daily Meal|accessdate=22 November 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailymeal.com/9-countries-eat-cats-and-dogs/11414|title=9 Countries That Eat Cats and Dogs|work=The Daily Meal|accessdate=22 November 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://vietnamcoracle.com/cat-meat/|title=Cat Meat|work=Vietnam Coracle|accessdate=22 November 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thedropoutdiaries.com/2012/11/the-truth-about-cats-dogs-in-vietnam/|title=The Truth About Cats & Dogs In Vietnam - The Dropout Diaries|work=The Dropout Diaries|accessdate=22 November 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/international/5337677/Where-cat-sits-happily-on-the-menu|title=Where cat sits happily on the menu|work=Stuff|accessdate=22 November 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://saynotodogmeat.net/2014/06/23/vietnam-brides-eat-cat-meat-for-luck/|title=Vietnam: Brides Eat Cat Meat for Luck|work=SAY NO TO DOG MEAT.NET|accessdate=22 November 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123032416/http://saynotodogmeat.net/2014/06/23/vietnam-brides-eat-cat-meat-for-luck/|archivedate=23 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}{{cite web|url=http://saynotodogmeat.net/2013/12/19/cat-meat-in-vietnam/|title=Cat Meat in Vietnam|work=SAY NO TO DOG MEAT.NET|accessdate=22 November 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123032224/http://saynotodogmeat.net/2013/12/19/cat-meat-in-vietnam/|archivedate=23 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}{{cite web|url=http://saynotodogmeat.net/2014/06/06/vietnam-dog-and-cat-meat-restaurant-signs/|title=Vietnam: Dog and Cat Meat Restaurant Signs|work=SAY NO TO DOG MEAT.NET|accessdate=22 November 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123035535/http://saynotodogmeat.net/2014/06/06/vietnam-dog-and-cat-meat-restaurant-signs/|archivedate=23 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2010/0722/Why-do-Vietnamese-keep-cats-on-a-leash-Hint-What-s-for-dinner|title=Why do Vietnamese keep cats on a leash? (Hint: What's for dinner?)|author=The Christian Science Monitor|work=The Christian Science Monitor|accessdate=22 November 2015}}
24. ^{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81341 |title=Rats Back on the Menu in Vietnam |website=Abcnews.go.com |date=2006-01-06 |accessdate=2016-01-10}}{{cite web|last=Watson |first=Leon |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2518121/Vietnam-restaurant-offers-roasted-rat-stick-local-delicacy.html |title=Vietnam restaurant offers roasted rat on stick as local delicacy |website=Dailymail.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2016-01-10}}{{cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22502204/vietnamese-eat-rats-and-are-aggressive-stanford-professor |title=Vietnamese eat rats and are aggressive, Stanford professor says in article, triggering online uproar |website=Mercurynews.com |date= |accessdate=2016-01-10}}{{cite web|author=Sou Vuthy |url=http://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/rat-meat-menu-vietnam-border |title=Rat meat on the menu at the Vietnam border, Lifestyle, Phnom Penh Post |website=Phnompenhpost.com |date=2012-09-12 |accessdate=2016-01-10}}{{cite web|url=http://www.travelchannel.com/video/would-you-ever-eat-a-rat-12048 |title=Would You Ever Eat a Rat? VIDEO : Dining with Death |website=TravelChannel.com |date= |accessdate=2016-01-10}}{{cite web|url=http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=421_1387157030 |title=Preparing Rat Meat to Cook (Vietnamese Style) |website=LiveLeak.com |date= |accessdate=2016-01-10}}
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/mekong-snake-hunters/|title=The Last Days of the Mekong Snake Hunters|date=9 August 2016|publisher=}}
26. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.travelchannel.com/shows/dining-with-death/video/would-you-ever-eat-a-rat |title= Would You Ever Eat a Rat? |last=Zimmern |first= Andrew |date= |website=Travel Channel |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
27. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.travelchannel.com/shows/bizarre-foods/episodes/ho-chi-minh-city-rat-hearts-and-porcupine-parts |title= Ho Chi Minh City: Rat Hearts & Porcupine Parts |last=Zimmern |first= Andrew |date= |website=Travel Channel |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
28. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4765530/ |title=Ho Chi Minh City: Rat Hearts & Porcupine Parts |last= |first= |date=1 June 2015 |website=imdb |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
29. ^{{cite book|author=Erica J. Peters|title=Appetites and Aspirations in Vietnam: Food and Drink in the Long Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_P1ig12re4C&pg=PA142#v=onepage&q=crocodile&f=false|year=2012|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-2075-4|pages=142–}}
30. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/compass/2015/12/sharks-tigers-and-elephants-new-analysis-reveals-tpp-threats-endangered-species |title=Sharks, Tigers, and Elephants: New Analysis Reveals TPP Threats to Endangered Species |last1=Beachy |first1= Ben |last2= |first2= |date=December 7, 2015 |website=Sierra Club |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
31. ^{{Cite news|url=http://vina.com/food/vietnamese-new-year-food/|title=Vietnamese new year food - some traditional food for new year days|newspaper=Vina.com represents all things about Vietnam|language=en-US|access-date=2017-02-05}}
32. ^{{Cite web|url=http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/travel/89179/coconut-worms--specialties-of-southwest-region.html|title=Coconut worms, specialties of Southwest region - News VietNamNet|last=vietnamnet.vn|website=english.vietnamnet.vn|access-date=2017-08-29}}
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.foodbycountry.com/Spain-to-Zimbabwe-Cumulative-Index/Vietnam.html|title=Food in Vietnam - Vietnamese Food, Vietnamese Cuisine - traditional, popular, dishes, recipe, diet, history, common, meals, rice|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://vietnamesefood.info/vietnamese-cuisine/|title=Vietnamese cuisine - Vietnamese Food|publisher=|accessdate=26 June 2016}}