| 词条 | African divination |
| 释义 |
African divination is divination practiced by cultures of Africa. Divination is an attempt to form, and possess, an understanding of reality in the present and additionally, to predict events and reality of a future time.[1] Cultures of Africa to the year circa C.E. 1991 were still performing and using divination, both within the urban and the rural environments. Diviners might also fulfill the role of herbalist.[2] Divination might be thought of as a social phenomenon,[1] and is thought of as central to the lives of people in societies of Africa (circa 2004 at least).[2] Of the five regions of Africa,[3][4] of which there are 54 countries of Africa,[5] the proceeding countries are shown in the contents of this article:
and,
NorthAlgeriaWomen of certain urban settlements of Algeria engage in divinatory practice involving the būqālah, which is both, a ceramic vessel, and a form of poetry.[7] EgyptianAccording to Sir E.A. Wallis Budge (c.1930), and at least according to archaeological evidence, practice of divination among the people of Egypt did not begin until the Ptolemaic period, and according to the source, it is almost certain (at the time of writing), native populations of Egypt began practice of these things by way of Grecian individuals who themselves had learnt about divination from Babylonia.[10] Necromancy exists in Demotic texts of Ancient Egypt (RK Ritner). Necromantic consultation of dead royalty was common during the beginning of the Twentieth Dynasty, which began year ca.1195 BC.[28][29]EastDjiboutiAfarDivination plays a part in the lives of the nomadic Afar people, who range over Ethiopia, and Eritrea, but whose members are greatest within Djibouti (circa 2013).[12] EritreaEritrean witch-doctors also participate in divination.[13] EthiopiaAmharaThe tribal group known as Amhara utilise a method which is known as awdunigist. Divination is made by counting stars in the night-sky. (R. Devisch citing Young; 1977).[14] {{See also|Star count}}UgandaNyoleThe Nyole of Uganda contain individuals who practice divination (S. Reynolds 1991).[2] The lamuli (diviners) use books for divination. The books used by the lamuli might be The Holy Qur'an, the Sa'atili Habari and the Abu Mashari Faraki.[52] Divination by the use of books is thought to have begun by way of the first influence of Ali bin Nasoor who was a trader from Oman who settled in Busolwe, and also by the influence of other Swahili or Arabic traders.[30] Findings of an investigation made by S.R. Whyte found the majority of people (in the sample) went for divination consultations for reasons of their own bad or failed health (please see reference page 16).[30] KenyaDivination specialism exists in Kenya.[55] Nandi of Kenya: The Nandi diviners are known as Chepsageinik or Kibarbarinik or Keeriik. Those who can see beyond. they are both diviners and locators. they can locate where the lost items, money or animals are.They use some small pieces of round stones called Barbarek which they put in a certain calabash, shake them and throw them out. After which they study them as per the direction each one took and give the answers either to the cause of illness or where about of the animals. Some may use the animals interstines to predict epidemic in the society or the blessings coming to the community. Mbiti states that 'when things go wrong people try to find the causes, and after these causes are believed to be human agents using magic, sorcery or witchcraft'(2010) p 170. They always do not stop at only what or who caused things to go wrong. they engage to put it right what has gone wrong the soonest possible. When they want to use an animal, they do not kill by cutting the Kneck but by suffocating the animal. Then the specialists took to their business of skinning the animal with a lot of care to avoid the shedding of blood. They (diviners) remove the interstines and study them carefully the pertern of the clotted blood and give their results. Divination is an incredibly rich area for anthropological research—in fact, I would argue that there is no richer ethnography of a culture than the study of its divination system. In a very real sense, as the Yoruba of Nigeria explicitly state about their system of Ifa, a divination system constitutes a people's "book of knowledge" wherein their history and cultural guidelines are maintained.Philip M. Peek 2013 p1 [31]) Giriama and SwahiliThe Giriama and Swahili of Kenya contain individuals who practice divination (D. Parkin 1991).[2] MalindiIn Malindi, spirit-medium diviners are known as aganga a mburuga. Aganga a kuvoyera are both diviners and healers, who are additionally experts in locating witchcraft. This last capacity is thought important because of business situations giving rise to accusations of witchcraft.[55] Luo peopleThe diviner (c.1904-1986) in the Luo is known as ajuoga.[32][33] Ajuoga has the meaning, juok only or just juok (J. Harries 2012).[34] The ajuoga are also known as night-runners.[34][35][36][37] MethodSwahili use the mostly astrological and numerological text, Falak, to divinate, based on an earlier text 'ilm al-Falak, which was used by Arabic and Omani to teach Africans astronomy and astrology.[38] Differentiation by genderOne investigation found within the Kaya area (of the Mijikenda peoples[39]) most diviners were male, while within the Magarini area they were female. In Malindi circa 2009, most diviners were female.[38] Nilotic people of the SudanIdentifying a sorcererIn cases and situations where ill and hurt or harm has been done by a sorcerer or suspected sorcerer, divination is used to both confirm or deny the presence of sorcery and if a sorcerer is found to be responsible, to then identify the sorcerer.[40] Protection from sorceryProtection from sorcery is afforded by a diviner by recourse to amulets, for which the diviner might take payment for, or alternatively, the diviner might assist with the direct punishment of a sorcerer by occult means, for the explicit reason of effecting a cure for the affliction. The AtuotJ.{{nbsp}}W. Burton made a study of the practice of divination of these peoples, particularly the Atuot.[2] A belief held by the Atuot is of behaviour which is deemed improper causing disharmony in a world which is harmonious, and the punishment of sickness, ignorance and death is made by God which is only alleviated by divination.[35] Muslim divinersThe faqih of Muslim societies, who is the theologian and jurist thought the most learned,[41] also fulfills a role as a diviner.[40] CentralBurundiA number of individuals who are divinators within Burundi, use a lance which is composed of copper, to divine.[17] Central African RepublicZandéOne method utilised by the Zandé people, is the poison-chicken method, in this, a chicken is administered poison, and the effects with regards to consequent mortality or survival of the creature determines the divination. This method is named Benge.[18] NzakaraWhen a divinater has a sickened person to treat, the tribal group Nzakara makes a divination from asking question, which have either an affirmation or negation (i.e. either a yes or no answer), as a response (R. Devisch citing Retel-Laurentin;1974).[14] The Democratic Republic of CongoThe PendeThe diviners of the Pende use instruments for divination.[25][19] The YakaThe Yaka people contain individuals who divine.[42] Yaka divination, which is mediumistic, originated in the ngoombu cult.[43] A. Almquist studied the Pagibeti, R. Devisch studied the Yaka,[2] while the country was known as Zaire (pre-August 1992).[44] SouthAngolaThe diviner is known as kimbanda, of nganga (the latter amongst the Kongo peoples).[21] In northeast Angola and neighboring regions of Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, some diviners practice basket divination.[45] BotswanaTswapong know and see seriti as significant to their understanding. They might use lots to divinate, which are known collectively, being of a variety of forms, ditaolo. Of the family of objects which a Tswapong might use, one of these members are bones:[46] {{Quote|Marapo a tse disuleng alaola ditsela|}}MozambiqueDiviners of Mozambique use divining apparatus known as tinholo.[47] Ndau tribeThe Nyamso loThe diviner is called the Nyamso lo.The Nyamso lo possesses divinatory powers because of the fact of the divinator being possessed and, while possessed, controlled by a sentient force known as the Zinthi ki.[90] The Zinthi kiThe Zinthi ki is friendly, and comes to the diviner from a place which is further away, the Zinthi ki is never a living human friend or relative[48] Possession by the Zinthi kiWhile possessed, the Nyamso lo is unconscious of the happenings which occur. In possession by Zin thi ki, the Nyamso lo might shudder, tremble and rock a little, with eyes either tightly shut, or open with a glassiness to them, and speaks with a voice which is unnatural in its hoarseness and being guttural.[48] South AfricaXhosaThe Xhosa peoples contain individuals who practice divination.[49] AmazuluThe diviner of the Amazulu[50] (the Zulu people[95]) of South East Africa[51][52] is known as Izinyanga Zokabula, or an Inyanga.[50] Diviners are said to have soft heads.[50] InitiationIn the period of initiation, the man, to begin with, abstains from certain foods, and eats only a small amount of food of the foods he does eat. He complains about bodily pain. He dreams many things (he has become a house of dreams). He finally becomes ill and goes to a diviner to seek help, but the man stays unwell for perhaps two years. At this time he is already possessed by the Itongo. His hair falls out. His skin is now dry. About this time he becomes aware of his divinatory powers which are heard and seen by his sneezing and yawning repeatedly, and is also now liking snuff very much, taking this often. He suffers convulsions in illness and has water poured over him, at which time the convulsions stop for a while. He cries and weeps. During the night sometimes others go to sing with him, after he has awoken them with his own singing, after having composed a song. His body is now emaciated. During the initiation the sleep pattern of the initiate changes to a number of brief periods and awaking to be active singing songs and leaping inside and outside (like a frog). The village make an effort to make the initiates Itongo white. At this time, a well-respected and known Inyanga makes ubulawo (an emetic) for the initiate, the initiate and the Inyanga spend two days together, then the initiate is himself an Inyanga.[50] ImpepoThe initiating Inyanga first eats black impepo, to take away dimness from the inner sight, then white impepo. White impepo is used to maintain trueness of inner sight after the black impepo. Both are emetics. The Inyanga sleeps with black impepo (under the head) to make the dreams clear and true.[50] divining near PretoriaWithin an area close to Pretoria, a divinater is known as a sangoma.[4] {{See also|Pretoria|l1=Moutse (Pretoria)}}WestBeninWithin Benin, individuals known as Ebo participate in divination, by interpretation of the past, and prediction of the future, by way and use of Osun. Osun is a force of spiritualness, which the Ebo possesses by harnessing power from the use of plants.[53] {{see also|Shamanism#Entheogens}}The Lobi of Burkina FasoP.{{nbsp}}Meyer studied divination within the Lobi.[2] A belief held by the Lobi is of behaviour which is deemed improper causing disharmony in a world which is harmonious, and the punishment of sickness, ignorance and death is made by God which is only alleviated by divination.[35] The Lobi diviner is connected to a god known as a Wathil, and the Wathil is the diviners personal god.[106] The Lobi diviner usually does not fulfill any other role than divination, and might see between five and twenty clients per day. The diviner is expected to not refuse anyone who wants a divination, if the diviner refuses then the Wathil expresses disapproval.[106] The status afforded to the Lobi diviner depends upon the quality of the service provided only, which is, the status held corresponds to the accuracy of the divination.[54] CameroonThe Kapsiki and Higi people of Cameroon use crabs for divination.[24] The Mambila use both crabs and spiders (see Mambila spider divination ), and in the forest zone spiders are widely used in the form called nggam. Côte d'Ivoire and GhanaBauleThe Baule people live within the Ivory Coast,[55] they have diviners who divine by trance and by another means,[25] the Baule make a contraption for the purposes of oracular divination, called a ghekre, which contains mice.[25] The Baule diviners can be male or female. The diviners have paraphernalia, and this is hats, mallets, display weaponry and iron gongs, and the diviner also possesses a fine-art sculpture(s) of the human figure.[55] Mice divination: A mouse of the variety field mouse is put within a cylindrical vessel within which vessel the mouse has something to eat. As the mouse eats it displaces little batons attached to the side of a tortoise shell tray within the vessel. As the batons fall they create a unique pattern on the ground and the diviner looks at these to tell the divination.[55] The type of mouse living within the Ivory Coast includes the Baer's wood mouse, Forest soft-furred mouse and Miller's striped mouse.[56]SenufoThe Senufo peoples[25] know their diviner as a Sando.[57] NigeriaAroThe Aro people had a number of shrines dedicated to the god Ibin Ukpabi that had uses including oracular practice, the foremost of these being located at the capital of the Aro territory in Arochukwu. The results of the practice of divination within these shrines was utilised by Aro divinaters to move slaves to oppose the control of British colonial powers. The Aro people utilised divination during battles against the British military to later defend the first shrine in Arochukwu from destruction. The shrine was ultimately destroyed in 1902. Members of the Aro were still participating in practices dedicated to Ibin Ukpabi in 2015.[58][59]YorubaThe Yoruba[60] have a system of divination known as Ifa. By Ifa a divinator, known to his people as a babalawo, invokes the Yoruba god Orunmila, who provides divinatory insight.[25] The Yoruba Ifa Odu verses are a corpus used for the purposes of divination.[61] The Yoruba diviner might use sixteen cowrie-shells instead of the Ifa oracle,[60] or sixteen palm nuts.[25] According to the Yoruba tribe, men and women are both allowed to practice the sixteen cowrie method, but only men are allowed to practice the Ifa method.[60] Kapsiki and Higi of NigeriaThe Kapsiki and Higi people of north eastern Nigeria use crabs for divination.[24] Sierra LeoneThe TemneThe Temne of Sierra Leone contain individuals who practiced divination at a time circa the year 1991.(R. Shaw 1991).[61] Temne divination practice is an adoption of practices from outside of the Temne tradition. The divination of the Temne is from Mande practices.[62] The Kpa-MendeDetection of witches by Tongo divination (sic) was a speciality of the Kpa-Mende, north of the Sherbro area in Sierra Leone.[63] TogoThe Batammaliba and Gar-speaking peoples of northern Togo and BeninRudolph Blier made a study of the diviner in the context of the health care system of the Batammaliba peoples of northern Togo.[61] The upon[35] is the word for the divinator of these peoples, and the upon fulfills additionally the role of a health consultant.[61][64] The upon is in fact central to health care provision within the Batammaliba and Gar-speaking peoples.[64] IslandsCape Verde IslandsThe Cape Verde Islands divinator is called a médico divinhador.[27] Peoples of MadagascarAntemoroP.{{nbsp}}Vérin and N.{{nbsp}}Rajaonarimanana made a study of the Antemoro system of divination within the Madagascan peoples.[61] SakalavaSikidy is a system of mathematical divination used by the ombiasa (diviner) within the Sakalava peoples. Sikidy uses acacia seeds.[65] Ascher published a 1977 study of sikidy.[66] Sikidy divination: The deity Zanahary is the guiding deity for the divination, according to Sakalava belief.[65] The ombiasa begins by making four piles of acacia seeds, then finds the number of seeds in one of the piles.[65] If the number of seeds in this pile is an odd number of seeds then one seed is set aside, if even then two are set aside. This process is continued with each pile until another (fifth) pile is created by the seeds put aside, and from this situation more measuring of seeds is made, the degree of counting depending on a decision by way of sacred knowledge which the ombiasa has, by up to the creation of twelve piles.[65] By way of the influence of Zanahary, each pile is assigned a status as either slave or prince and assigned as being one of the cardinal points, and by this means the ombiasa is led to the divinatory conclusion.[65] See also{{Portal|Africa|Culture}}
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McIntosh (Brandeis University) |title = The Edge of Islam: Power, Personhood, and Ethnoreligious Boundaries on the Kenya Coast |publisher = Duke University Press |date = 2009 |isbn = 0-8223-9096-5 |page = 229,281 |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 39. ^{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1231 |title = Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |first = UNESCO World Heritage |last = Centre |date = |work = unesco.org |accessdate = June 22, 2016 }} 40. ^1 {{cite book |url = http://countrystudies.us/sudan/50.htm |author = personnel of U.S. Department of the Army (1986–1998) |title = Sudan |publisher = Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (U.S. Department of the Army) |date = |isbn = |page = |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 41. ^O. Roy, A. Sfeir (2007) – [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNrMilgHKKEC&pg The Columbia World Dictionary of Islamism] p.396-, Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-14640-X}} [Retrieved December 29, 2015] 42. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=b2flOm4oXrgC&printsec |author = R. Devisch |title = Reviewing Reality: Dynamics of African Divination |publisher = LIT Verlag Münster |date = 2013 |isbn = 3-643-90335-9 |page =25 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}Volume 50 of African Studies 43. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sNnCMvBF0akC&pg=PA246&dq=epilepsy+and+frenzy+in+divination&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZh4W4xPfJAhUKnXIKHZkeC10Q6AEIIzAB#v=onepage&q=epilepsy%20and%20frenzy%20in%20divination&f=false |author = R. Devisch (Arizona State University) |title = Divination and Healing: Potent Vision |publisher = University of Arizona Press |date = 2004 |isbn = 0-8165-2377-0 |page = 243 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }} 44. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cvjNXc0tsyEC&printsec |author = G. Nzongola-Ntalaja (Howard University) |title = From Zaire to the Democratic Republic of the Congo |publisher = Nordic Africa Institute |date = 2004 |isbn = 9171065385 |page = 5 |accessdate = December 26, 2015 }} 45. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606785118|title=Along an African border : Angolan refugees and their divination baskets|last=Silva|first=Sónia.|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2011|isbn=9780812242935|location=|pages=|oclc=606785118}} 46. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0k-xCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10&dq|author = R. Werbner (Professor Emeritus) |title = Divination’s Grasp: African Encounters with the Almost Said|publisher = Indiana University Press |date = 15 Nov 2015 |isbn = 0253018951|page = 10 |accessdate = January 5, 2017 }} 47. ^1 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_wEpDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30&dq |author = P.M. Peek|title = Divination: Perspectives for a New Millennium|publisher = Routledge |date = 13 May 2016 |isbn = 1317149025 |page = |accessdate = January 5, 2017 }} 48. ^1 2 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WTB4W6E3FbQC&pg |author = Kam'ba Sima ngo (& N. Curtis Burlin) |title = Songs and tales from the dark continent: the authoritative 1920 classic, recorded from the singing and the sayings of C. Kamba Simango, Ndau tribe, Portuguese East Africa, and Madikane Čele, Zulu tribe, Natal, Zululand, South Africa |publisher = Courier Corporation |date = 1920 |isbn = 0-486-42069-8 |page = 15,16,17,18 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}Dover books on music 49. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=b2flOm4oXrgC&printsec=frontcover&dq |author = N Lily-Rose Mlisa |title = Reviewing Reality: Dynamics of African Divination |publisher = LIT Verlag Münster |date = 2013 |isbn = 3-643-90335-9 |page =59 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}Volume 50 of African Studies 50. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IYizBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1&dq |author = H. Callaway |title = The Religious System of the Amazulu: With a Translation Into English, and Notes |publisher = J.A. Blair |date = 1868 |isbn = |page = |accessdate = }} 51. ^1 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1EmlBAAAQBAJ&pg |author = E.A. Eldredge |title = The Creation of the Zulu Kingdom, 1815–1828 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = 2014 |isbn = 1-107-07532-7 |page =106 |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 52. ^{{cite book |url = https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/seafridr.pdf |author = United Nations: Department of Peace Keeping Operations |title = South East Africa Drain Map |publisher = United Nations |date = January 2004 |isbn = |page = |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 53. ^1 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q8PDPDRgO4sC&pg=PA218&dqe|author = Kate Ezra|title = Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art |date = 1992 |isbn = 0870996339 |page = 217 |accessdate = January 5, 2017 }} citing Melzian, Bradbury, Ben-Amos 54. ^1 2 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gEHXAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA154&dq=divination+Lobi+of+Burkina+Faso&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=divination%20Lobi%20of%20Burkina%20Faso&f=false |author = T.N. Washington, P. Meyer cited by T.N. Washington (Grambling State University) |title = Manifestations of Masculine Magnificence: Divinity in Africana Life, Lyrics, and Literature |publisher = Oya's Tornado |date = 2014 |isbn = 0-9910730-0-2 |page = 154 |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 55. ^1 2 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y5nr5fGiHIC&pg |author = H.B. Werness (California State University) |title = Continuum Encyclopedia of Native Art: Worldview, Symbolism, and Culture in Africa, Oceania, and North America |publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group |date = 2003 |isbn = 0-8264-1465-6 |page = 81 |accessdate = December 30, 2015 }} 56. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kMxjL_xRkC4C&pg |author1 = A. Duff |author2 = A. Lawson |title = Mammals of the World: A Checklist |publisher = Yale University Press |date = 2004 |isbn = 0-300-10398-0 |pages = 85, 86 }} 57. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v_l91p8YrqYC&pg=PR19&dq=Senufo+Sando&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2yaW1ovfJAhVrnXIKHUR4DWIQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=Senufo%20Sando&f=false |author = T.J. Bassett (University of Illinois) |title = The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Côte D'Ivoire, 1880–1995 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = March 2006 |isbn = 0-521-78883-8 |page = xix |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}Volume 101 of African Studies 58. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MFfrBgAAQBAJ&pg |author =Jeffrey Ian Ross |title = Religion and Violence: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict from Antiquity to the Present |publisher = Routledge|date = March 4, 2015 |isbn = 1317461096 |page = 23 |accessdate = January 12, 2017 }} 59. ^M. Sherwood - [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3HraAAAAMAAJ&dq=British+slave+trade&hlI After abolition: Britain and the slave trade since 1807] I.B. Tauris 2007 {{ISBN|9781845113650}} Retrieved 2017-01-12 60. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CfmDsiI7TbgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=african+divination&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXl62cj_fJAhXI8nIKHSKRA7MQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q=african%20divination&f=false |author = W.R. Bascom (& Salacǫ) |title = Sixteen Cowries: Yoruba Divination from Africa to the New World |publisher = Indiana University Press |date = 1993 |isbn = 0-253-20847-5 |page = |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}Volume 847 of Midland Books 61. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=myc8X1eiKlUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=african+divination&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=african%20divination&f=false |author = P.M. Peek (Drew University) |title = African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing |publisher = Indiana University Press |date = 1991 |isbn = 0-253-34309-7 |page = 2,3,4 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }}African systems of thought http://www.drew.edu/anthropology/faculty#Philip 62. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A-XXJBR8EP8C&pg=PA70&dq=Temne+of+Sierra+Leone+divination&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEzvqZmoHKAhUG8XIKHUUQD2EQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=Temne%20of%20Sierra%20Leone%20divination&f=false |author = R. Shaw (Tufts University) |title = Memories of the Slave Trade: Ritual and the Historical Imagination in Sierra Leone |publisher = University of Chicago Press |date = 2002 |isbn = 0-226-75131-7 |pages = 70, 71 |accessdate = December 29, 2015 }} 63. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=e2CjE7fwaFwC&pg=PA100&dq=Tongo+divination&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Tongo%20divination&f=false |author = J. Knight (Queen's University), European Association of Social Anthropologists |title = Natural Enemies: People-wildlife Conflicts in Anthropological Perspective |publisher = Psychology Press |date = 2000 |isbn = 0-415-22440-3 |pages =90, 100 |accessdate = November 30, 2016 |quotation=divinatory practices of specialists known as Tongo Players (Mende tôngô mô – 'a person who detects witches)… using lottery-like divinatory practices… Tongo divination appears to have been a speciality of the Kpa-Mende people, in the area immediately north of Sherbro country. }} 64. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9h5KDRfZ-JgC&pg=PA46&dq=Atuot+divination&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Atuot%20divination&f=false |author = N.S. Murrell (University of North Carolina Wilmington) |title = Afro-Caribbean Religions: An Introduction to Their Historical, Cultural, and Sacred Traditions |publisher = Temple University Press |date = January 25, 2010 |isbn = 1-4399-0175-9 |page = 46 |accessdate = December 25, 2015 }} 65. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yNjQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48&dq=African+divination&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjfmNHs1vnJAhVDEXIKHURSDnE4ChDoAQg7MAU#v=onepage&q=African%20divination&f=false |author = J.K. Olupona (Harvard Divinity School) |title = African Religions: A Very Short Introduction |publisher = OUP USA |date = 2014 |isbn = 0-19-979058-2 |page = 48 |accessdate = December 26, 2015 }}Volume 377 of Very Short Introductions 66. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DbsqBgAAQBAJ&pg |author = P. Gerdes |title = Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics |publisher = Springer Science & Business Media |date = 6 December 2012 |isbn =9401143013 |page = 41 |accessdate = 2017-01-13}} 2 : African culture|Divination |
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