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词条 Viola (plant)
释义

  1. Description

  2. Selected species

  3. Fossil record

  4. Horticultural uses

     Species and cultivars  Bedding plants  Perennial cultivars 

  5. Ecology

  6. Weed control

  7. Other uses

     Culinary  Cultural associations  Birth  Geographical territories  Lesbians  Tributes  Medicinal  Perfume 

  8. See also

  9. References

     External links 
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Viola reichenbachiana LC0128.jpg
|image_caption = Viola reichenbachiana
|display_parents = 2
|taxon = Viola (plant)
|authority = L.
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = List of Viola species
}}Viola ({{IPAc-en|us|v|aɪ|ˈ|oʊ|l|ə}} and {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|v|aɪ|.|ə|l|ə}})[1]

is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species.[2][3] Most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere; however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes.

Some Viola species are perennial plants, some are annual plants, and a few are small shrubs. A large number of species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.[4][5]

Description

Viola typically have heart-shaped, scalloped leaves, though a number have palmate leaves or other shapes. The vast majority of Viola species are herbaceous, and a substantial number are acaulescent in habit - meaning they lack any noticeable stems and the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground; the remaining species have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like.

Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have five sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The flowers have five free stamens with short filaments that are oppressed against the ovary, only the lower two stamens have nectary spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch. The flower styles are thickened near the top and the stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules.

Viola are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well-developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals.[6] In some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile (e.g.,Viola papilionacea).[7]

After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that split open by way of three valves.[8] On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters.[9] The nutlike seeds have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily.[10] The seeds of some species have elaiosomes and are dispersed by ants.[11]

Flower colors vary in the genus, ranging from violet, through various shades of blue, yellow, white, and cream, whilst some types are bicolored, often blue and yellow. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer.

One quirk of some Viola is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with terpenes, a major component of the scent is a ketone compound called ionone, which temporarily desensitizes the receptors of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.{{Citation needed|reason=Nothing about this curious phenomenon in the ionone article.|date=January 2012}}

Selected species

See List of Viola species for a more complete list.

  • Viola arvensis
    field pansy
  • Viola banksii
    Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet
  • Viola biflora
    yellow wood violet, twoflower violet
  • Viola canina
    heath dog violet
  • Viola cheiranthifolia
    Teide violet
  • Viola glabella
    stream violet
  • Viola hederacea
    Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet
  • Viola hirta
    hairy violet
  • Viola labradorica
    alpine violet
  • Viola odorata
    sweet violet
  • Viola pedunculata
    yellow pansy
  • Viola persicifolia
    fen violet
  • Viola praemorsa
    canary violet
  • Viola pubescens
    downy yellow violet
  • Viola riviniana
    common dog violet
  • Viola rostrata
    long-spurred violet
  • Viola sororia
    common blue violet, hooded violet
  • Viola tricolor
    wild pansy, heartsease

Note: Neither Saintpaulia ("African violets") nor Erythronium dens-canis ("dogtooth violets") are related to the true Viola.

The genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common Viola in many areas, sweet violet (Viola odorata) (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word "violet". Several species are known as pansies, including the yellow pansy (Viola pedunculata) of the Pacific coast.

Common blue violet Viola sororia is the state flower of Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Illinois, and New Jersey.

Australia is home to a number of Viola species, including Viola hederacea, Viola betonicifolia and Viola banksii, first collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander on the Cook voyage to Botany Bay.

Fossil record

One fossil seed of †Viola rimosa has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.[12]

Horticultural uses

Species and cultivars

Cultivars of Viola cornuta, Viola cucullata, and Viola odorata, are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include Viola labradorica, Viola pedata, and Viola rotundifolia.[13]

The modern garden pansy (V. × wittrockiana) is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species, V. tricolor (wild pansy or heartsease), V. altaica, and V. lutea (mountain pansy).[14]The hybrid horned pansy (V. × williamsii) originates from hybridization involving garden pansy and Viola cornuta.[15]

Bedding plants

In 2005 in the United States, Viola cultivars (including pansies) were one of the top three bedding plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of Viola were produced for the bedding flower market.[16] Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and F1 hybrid seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower coloring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.

Perennial cultivars

There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta cultivars; many of these do not breed true from seed and therefore have to be propagated from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals.[4] The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-[17]

  • 'Aspasia'[18]
  • 'Clementina'[19]
  • 'Huntercombe Purple'[20]
  • 'Moonlight'[21]
  • 'Nellie Britton'[22]

Other popular examples include:[23]

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
  • 'Ardross Gem' (viola)
  • 'Blackjack'
  • 'Buttercup' (violetta)
  • 'Columbine' (viola)
  • 'Dawn' (violetta)
  • 'Etain' (viola)
  • 'Irish Molly' (viola)
  • 'Jackanapes' (viola)
  • 'Maggie Mott' (viola)
  • 'Martin' (viola)
  • 'Molly Sanderson' (viola)
  • 'Rebecca' (violetta)
  • 'Vita' (viola)
  • 'Zoe' (violetta)
{{div col end}}

Ecology

Viola species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth, large yellow underwing, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing, high brown fritillary, small pearl-bordered fritillary, pearl-bordered fritillary, cardinal, and Setaceous Hebrew character.

Weed control

Not all Viola are desired, and wild violets are considered weeds in North American lawns by some people.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} Others tolerate or welcome the presence of violets in lawns. Wild violets are regarded as a problem in shady fescue lawns in North America. Violets thrive in the part/full shade and are not susceptible to most herbicides used to kill common lawn weeds. Triclopyr, a weedkiller, has been found to be an effective method of controlling wild violets in fescue lawns.

Other uses

Culinary

When newly opened, Viola flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream, and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of Viola flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a somewhat bland leaf vegetable. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, have a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen. The pungent perfume of some varieties of V. odorata adds inimitable sweetness to desserts, fruit salads, and teas while the mild pea flavor of V. tricolor combines equally well with sweet or savory foods, like grilled meats and steamed vegetables. The heart-shaped leaves of V. odorata provide a free source of greens throughout a long growing season.[24]

A candied violet or crystallized violet is a flower, usually of Viola odorata, preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternatively, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for rose petals and was applied to orange flowers in the past (when almonds or orange peel are treated this way they are called pralines). Candied violets are still made commercially in Toulouse, France, where they are known as violettes de Toulouse. They are used as decorating or included in aromatic desserts.

The French are also known for their violet syrup, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet scones and marshmallows.

Viola essence flavours the liqueurs Creme Yvette, Creme de Violette, and Parfait d'Amour. It is also used in Parma Violets confectionery.

Cultural associations

Birth

Violet is the traditional birth flower for February in English tradition.[25]

Geographical territories

In the United States, the violet is state flower of Illinois[26] and Rhode Island.[27] Viola sororia was declared the state flower of New Jersey [28] and Wisconsin.[29][30] In Canada, the Viola cucullata is the provincial flower of New Brunswick adopted in 1936[31] In the United Kingdom, Viola riviniana is the county flower of Lincolnshire.[32]

Lesbians

Violets became symbolically associated with lesbian love.[33][34] This connection originates from fragments of a poem by Sappho about a lost love, in which she describes her as "Close by my side you put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses."[35] In another poem, Sappho describes her lost love as wearing "violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around" her neck.[36] In 1926, one of the first plays to involve a lesbian relationship, La Prisonnière by Édouard Bourdet, used a bouquet of violets to signify lesbian love.[37][38]

Tributes

Violets, and badges depicting them,[39][40]

were sold in fund-raising efforts in Australia and New Zealand on and around Violet Day[41] in commemoration of the lost soldiers of World War I.[42]

Medicinal

{{medical citations needed|section|date=May 2015}}

Many Viola species contain antioxidants called anthocyanins. Fourteen anthocyanins from V. yedoensis and V. prionantha have been identified. Some anthocyanins show strong antioxidant activities.[43] Most violas tested and many other plants of the family Violaceae contain cyclotides,[44][45][46] which have a diverse range of in vitro biological activities when isolated from the plant, including uterotonic, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities.[47] Viola canescens, a species from India, exhibited in vitro activity against Trypanosoma cruzi.[48]

Viola has been evaluated in different clinical indications in human studies. A double blind clinical trial showed that the adjuvant use of Viola odorata syrup with short-acting β-agonists can improve the cough suppression in children with asthma.[49][50][51][52] In another study intranasal administration of Viola odorata extract oil showed to be effective in patients with insomnia.[50][53] Topical use of an herbal formulation containing Viola tricolor extract also showed promising effects in patients with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis.[54]

Perfume

Viola odorata is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a 'flirty' scent as its fragrance comes and goes. Ionone is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.[55]

See also

  • Rosalia (festival), a festival of roses which sometimes involved violas
  • Pansy

References

1. ^The pronunciation {{IPAc-en|v|aɪ|ˈ|oʊ|l|ə}} ({{respell|vy|OH|lə}}) is the most common one in US English, but US dictionaries also record (less common) use of {{IPAc-en|v|i|ˈ|oʊ|l|ə}} ({{respell|vee|OH|lə}}) and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|aɪ|.|ə|l|ə}} ({{respell|VY|ə-lə}}): American Heritage Dictionary {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213124442/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/viola_2 |date=2010-02-13 }}, Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219212136/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/viola |date=2010-02-19 }}. The only pronunciation recorded by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20070915234800/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/viola_2?view=uk Compact Oxford English Dictionary] is {{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|iː|ə|l|ə}} ({{respell|VEE|ə-lə}}) but the only pronunciation recorded by the Oxford Dictionaries Online is {{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|aɪ|.|ə|l|ə}} ({{respell|VY|ə-lə}}).
2. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ning | first1 = Z. L. |display-authors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Viola jinggangshanensis (Violaceae), a new species from Jiangxi, China | url = http://www.annbot.net/PDF/anb49-free/anb49-383i.pdf | journal = Annales Botanici Fennici | volume = 49 | issue = 5 | pages = 383–86 | doi = 10.5735/085.049.0610 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140220092501/http://www.annbot.net/PDF/anb49-free/anb49-383i.pdf | archivedate = 2014-02-20 | df = }}
3. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Zhou | first1 = J. S. |display-authors=etal | year = 2008 | title = Viola nanlingensis (Violaceae), a new species from Guangdong, southern China | url = http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anb45-free/anb45-233.pdf | journal = Annales Botanici Fennici | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 233–36 | doi = 10.5735/085.045.0312 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140220113006/http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anb45-free/anb45-233.pdf | archivedate = 2014-02-20 | df = }}
4. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.americanvioletsociety.org/Species_N_Cultivars/Pansy.htm |title=Pansies, Violas and Violettas |accessdate=2009-02-06 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225103343/http://www.americanvioletsociety.org/Species_N_Cultivars/Pansy.htm |archivedate=2008-12-25 |df= }} (Accessed 14 Oct 2008)
5. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.rhs.org.uk/RHSPlantFinder/GenusClass.asp?Genus=Viola |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-10-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211151611/http://www.rhs.org.uk/RHSPlantFinder/GenusClass.asp?Genus=Viola |archivedate=2008-12-11 |df= }} (Accessed 14 Oct 2008)
6. ^{{Cite book | author = Walters, Dirk R., and David J. Keil | date = 1996 | title = Vascular plant taxonomy | location = Dubuque, Iowa | publisher = Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. | page =332}}
7. ^Violet, Common Blue - (‘’Viola papilionacea’’) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310215441/http://www.voyageurcountry.com/htmls/floweringplants/plants/violetblue.html |date=2012-03-10 }}
8. ^{{cite book | author = Cullen, J. | date = 2001 | title = Handbook of North European garden plants with keys to families and genera | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press. | page = 345}}
9. ^{{cite book | author = Rendle, Alfred B. | date = 1967 | title = The classification of plants. Vol. II: Dicotyledons | publisher = Cambridge at the University Press | page = 208 }}
10. ^{{cite book | author = Cronquist, Arthur | date = 1981 | title = An integrated system of classification of flowering plants | location = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | page = 404}}
11. ^{{cite book | author = Sanders, Jack | date = 2003 | title = The secrets of wildflowers | location = Guilford, CT | publisher = The Globe Pequot Press | page = 49 }}
12. ^Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.
13. ^{{Citation | last = Armitage | first = Allan M. | year = 1989 | title = Herbaceous perennial plants: a treatise on their identification, culture, and garden attributes | pages = 600–606 | isbn = 978-0-87563-810-2 | publisher = Varsity Press, Inc. | location = Athens, GA. }}
14. ^{{Cite journal|last=Wittrock|first=Veit Brecher|date=1895|title=Viola-studier II. Bidrag till de odlade penséernas historia med särskild hänsyn till deras härkomst|url=|journal=Acta Horti Bergiani|volume=2|issue=7|pages=|via=}}
15. ^{{Cite journal|last=Wittrock|first=Veit Brecher|date=1897|title=Viola-studier I. Morfologisk-biologiska och systematiska studier öfver Viola tricolor (L.) och hennes närmare anförvandter|url=|journal=Acta Horti Bergiani|volume=2|issue=1|pages=117|via=}}
16. ^{{cite web |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/EP327 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-09-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211185252/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/EP327 |archivedate=2008-12-11 |df= }}
17. ^{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants - Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 107 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | accessdate = 18 February 2019}}
18. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector Viola 'Aspasia'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=4297|accessdate=8 June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517053607/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=4297|archivedate=17 May 2013|df=}}
19. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector Viola 'Clementina'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5632|accessdate=8 June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517080143/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5632|archivedate=17 May 2013|df=}}
20. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector Viola 'Huntercombe Purple'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=2027|accessdate=8 June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517053618/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=2027|archivedate=17 May 2013|df=}}
21. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector Viola 'Moonlight'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5718|accessdate=8 June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517064032/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5718|archivedate=17 May 2013|df=}}
22. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector Viola 'Nellie Britton'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=4302|accessdate=8 June 2013}}
23. ^RHS Plant Finder 2008-2009, Dorling Kindersley (2008) {{ISBN|978-1-4053-3190-6}} pp787–791
24. ^{{cite web|last=Whittaker|first=Debbie|title=Cooking and Decorating With Violets|url=http://americanvioletsociety.org/Cooking_N_Decorating/ViolaChef_01.htm|work=The Culinary Violet|publisher=The American Violet Society|accessdate=2012-02-09|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223050014/http://americanvioletsociety.org/Cooking_N_Decorating/ViolaChef_01.htm|archivedate=2012-02-23|df=}}
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.almanac.com/content/birth-month-flowers-and-their-meanings/|title=Birth Month Flowers and Their Meanings|first=Old Farmer's|last=Almanac|publisher=}}
26. ^{{cite web | url= http://www.state.il.us/kids/learn/symbols/ | title= State Symbols | publisher= State of Illinois}}
27. ^{{cite web|url=https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/rhode-island/state-flower/violet|title=Rhode Island State Flower - Violet|website=statesymbolsusa.org}}
28. ^{{cite web|url=https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/new-jersey/state-flower/violet|title=New Jersey State Flower - Violet|website=statesymbolsusa.org}}
29. ^{{cite web|title=Wisconsin State Symbols |publisher=State of Wisconsin |url=http://www.wisconsin.gov/state/core/wisconsin_state_symbols.html |accessdate=2011-12-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112222837/http://www.wisconsin.gov/state/core/wisconsin_state_symbols.html |archivedate=2010-01-12 |df= }}
30. ^{{cite web|url=https://statesymbolsusa.org/wisconsin/flower/wood-violet|title=Wisconsin State Flower - Wood Violet|website=statesymbolsusa.org}}
31. ^{{cite web | title = New Brunswick | publisher = Government of Canada | date = 2013-08-28 | url = http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1363284167066 | accessdate = 2015-07-18 }}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/discover-wild-plants-nature/plant-fungi-species/dog-violet-common|title=Dog-violet (Common)|website=Plantlife}}
33. ^{{cite book|last1=Myers|first1=JoAnne|title=The A to Z of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage (The A to Z Guide Series, No. 73 )|date=2003|publisher=The Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Maryland|page=242|edition=1st|isbn=978-0-8108-6811-3}}
34. ^{{cite book|title=The Alyson Almanac: A Treasury of Information for the Gay and Lesbian Community|date=1989|publisher=Alyson Publications|location=Boston, Massachusetts|page=100|chapter=Gay Symbols Through the Ages|isbn=978-0-932870-19-3}}
35. ^{{cite book|last1=Collecott|first1=Diana|title=H.D. and Sapphic Modernism 1910-1950|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|page=216|edition=1st|isbn=978-0-521-55078-9}}
36. ^{{cite book|last1=Barnard|first1=Mary|title=Sappho: A New Translation|date=1958|publisher=University of California Press|page=42|edition=1st}} (LCCN 58-6520)
37. ^{{cite web|last1=Cohen-Stratyner|first1=Barbara|title=Violets and Vandamm|url=https://www.nypl.org/blog/2014/01/14/violets-vandamm|website=New York Public Library|date=January 14, 2014|accessdate=4 October 2018}}
38. ^{{cite book|last1=Sova|first1=Dawn B.|title=Banned Plays: Censorship Histories of 125 Stage Dramas|date=2004|publisher=Facts On File|pages=37–40|edition=1st|isbn=978-0-8160-4018-6}}
39. ^NMA Collections Search {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531105254/http://www.nma.gov.au/collections-search/display?irn=34929 |date=2014-05-31 }} National Museum of Australia (2003-2010) - Violet Day 1917 fundraising badge
40. ^{{Citation | last = Gracie | first = Carol | year = 2012 | title = Spring Wildflowers of the Northeast: A Natural History | pages = 221 | isbn = 978-0691144665 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, NJ }}
41. ^Family History South Australia {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109212657/http://www.ach.familyhistorysa.info/ww1violetday.html |date=2013-11-09 }} Leadbeater, B (2006). World War 1 Violet Day South Australia.
42. ^{{cite web|title=Violet Day, Press, 3 September 1914, p.8, col. 8|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=CHP19140903.1.8&e=-------10--1----0--|publisher=The National Library of New Zealand|accessdate=10 November 2015|page=8|format=Newspaper|date=3 September 1914|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305135809/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d|archivedate=5 March 2016|df=}}
43. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Zhang | first1 = J. |display-authors=etal | year = 2011 | title = Rapid separation and identification of anthocyanins from flowers of Viola yedoensis and V. prionantha by high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry | url = | journal = Phytochemical Analysis | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 16–22 | pmid = 21523841 | doi=10.1002/pca.1320}}
44. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = J. |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title = Isolation and characterization of cytotoxic cyclotides from Viola tricolor | url = http://210.72.88.198:8080/bitstream/151853/4868/1/201202130060.pdf | journal = Peptides | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1434–40 | doi = 10.1016/j.peptides.2010.05.004 | pmid = 20580652 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130718062837/http://210.72.88.198:8080/bitstream/151853/4868/1/201202130060.pdf | archivedate = 2013-07-18 | df = | access-date = 2013-07-03 }}
45. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Trabi | first1 = M. |display-authors=etal | year = 2009 | title = Circular proteins from Melicytus (Violaceae) refine the conserved protein and gene architecture of cyclotides | url = | journal = Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry | volume = 7 | issue = 11| pages = 2378–88 | pmid = 19462049 | doi=10.1039/b823020j}}
46. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Gerlach | first1 = S. L. |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title = Isolation, characterization, and bioactivity of cyclotides from the Micronesian plant Psychotria leptothyrsa | url = | journal = Journal of Natural Products | volume = 73 | issue = 7| pages = 1207–13 | pmid = 20575512 | doi=10.1021/np9007365}}
47. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Craik | first1 = David J. | year = 2010 | title = Discovery and applications of the plant cyclotides | url = | journal = Toxicon | volume = 56 | issue = 7| pages = 1092–1102 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.021 | pmid = 20219513 }}
48. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Dua | first1 = VK | last2 = Verma | first2 = G | last3 = Agarwal | first3 = DD | last4 = Kaiser | first4 = M | last5 = Brun | first5 = R | date = Apr 2011 | title = Antiprotozoal activities of traditional medicinal plants from the Garhwal region of North West Himalaya, India | doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.024 | pmid = 21527328 | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 136| issue = 1| pages = 123–128 }}
49. ^{{cite journal | title = The Effect of Viola odorata Flower Syrup on the Cough of Children With Asthma: A Double-Blind, Randomized Controlled Trial. | doi = 10.1177/2156587215584862 | pmid = 25954025 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276065394 | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | date = Oct 2015 | journal = Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine | pages = 287–91 | last1 = Qasemzadeh | first1 = MJ | last2 = Sharifi | first2 = H | last3 = Hamedanian | first3 = M | last4 = Gharehbeglou | first4 = M | last5 = Heydari | first5 = M | last6 = Sardari | first6 = M | last7 = Akhlaghdoust | first7 = M | last8 = Minae | first8 = MB | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150518222638/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/276065394_The_Effect_of_Viola_odorata_Flower_Syrup_on_the_Cough_of_Children_With_Asthma_A_Double-Blind_Randomized_Controlled_Trial | archivedate = 2015-05-18 | df = }}
50. ^1 {{cite book|title=PDR for Herbal Medicines|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OmRWAAAAYAAJ&q=pdr&dq=pdr|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130135935/https://books.google.com/books?id=OmRWAAAAYAAJ&q=pdr&dq=pdr&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0YpVVZDbB6uR7Ab8-4OoAw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg|archivedate=2015-11-30|df=|isbn=9781563635120|last1=Staff|first1=Thomson P.D.R|date=2004-01-01}}
51. ^{{cite journal|title=A review on phytoconstituents against asthma|journal=Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res.|url=https://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-84922538721&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=viola+cough&sid=50AD93759C5EDD6F811C71502AC67BED.fM4vPBipdL1BpirDq5Cw%3a20&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=26&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28viola+cough%29&relpos=0&relpos=0&citeCnt=0&searchTerm=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28viola+cough%29}}
52. ^{{cite journal|title=Herbal antitussives and expectorants - A review|journal=International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research|date=2010|volume=5|issue=2|pages=5–9|url=https://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-79952013917&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=viola+cough&sid=50AD93759C5EDD6F811C71502AC67BED.fM4vPBipdL1BpirDq5Cw%3a20&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=26&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28viola+cough%29&relpos=6&relpos=6&citeCnt=7&searchTerm=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28viola+cough%29}}
53. ^{{cite journal | title = Efficacy of Viola odorata in Treatment of Chronic Insomnia. | doi = 10.5812/ircmj.17511 | pmid = 25763239 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273466767 | volume = 16 | issue = 12 | date = Dec 2014 | journal = Iran Red Crescent Medical Journal | pages = e17511 | pmc = 4341349 | last1 = Feyzabadi | first1 = Z | last2 = Jafari | first2 = F | last3 = Kamali | first3 = SH | last4 = Ashayeri | first4 = H | last5 = Badiee Aval | first5 = S | last6 = Esfahani | first6 = MM | last7 = Sadeghpour | first7 = O | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150519040953/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/273466767_Efficacy_of_Viola_odorata_in_Treatment_of_Chronic_Insomnia?ev=srch_pub&_sg=e21GyACZlygT4KI9Ha%2BCoSCzJYhH9eXHnkcEHmN37NgouYIXGpBYqRfQ2LmRPcNk_yEpxJ8gofKYR6Yyreg392YNRx4wOFKql3RJzYeDVM6b02QfRNaU0jYkSs2mTswQk_AaQ1JynG31%2FFRcedMub581KfFDaXknkUCoRkbi4LhlSBWqfV7YPcFMp7uzwcTJni | archivedate = 2015-05-19 | df = }}
54. ^{{cite journal|title=A randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled, half-side comparison with a herbal ointment containing Mahonia aquifolium, Viola tricolor and Centella asiatica for the treatment of mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis.|doi=10.5414/CPP45583|pmid=18077922|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5770508|volume=45|issue=11|date=Nov 2007|journal=Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther|pages=583–91|last1=Klövekorn|first1=W|last2=Tepe|first2=A|last3=Danesch|first3=U|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519021208/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5770508_A_randomized_double-blind_vehicle-controlled_half-side_comparison_with_a_herbal_ointment_containing_Mahonia_aquifolium_Viola_tricolor_and_Centella_asiatica_for_the_treatment_of_mild-to-moderate_atopic_dermatitis|archivedate=2015-05-19|df=}}
55. ^Ackerman, Diane. A natural history of the senses. New York: Vintage Books, 1991. Print.

External links

{{Commons|Viola (Violaceae)}}
  • ITIS (Accessed December 2, 2002)
  • The Oxford Companion to Food, by Alan Davidson, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-211579-0}}
  • Larousse Gastronomique, by Prosper Montagné (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. {{ISBN|0-609-60971-8}}
  • Violaceae in Topwalks
  • Viola charlestonensis type sheet from Louis-Marie herbarium (Laval University; Isotype, holotype is at University of California).
  • Images of Japanese Viola Flavon's art gallery
  • The American Violet Society
  • Violacae images at botanische-spaziergaenge.at
  • {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Violet|short=x}}
  • {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Violets|short=x}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q146095}}

5 : Malpighiales genera|Viola (plant)|Garden plants|Leaf vegetables|Medicinal plants
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