“Vitamin K”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Chemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K₁ and vitamin K₂.^[2] Vitamin K₂, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms.

Vitamin K₁, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K. It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins. Animals may also convert it to vitamin K₂.

Bacteria in the gut flora can also convert K₁ into vitamin K₂ (menaquinone). In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K₂ to produce a range of vitamin K₂ forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K₂. All forms of K₂ other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these during anaerobic respiration. The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K₂ exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation.

Because a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K₃ (menadione), may be toxic by interfering with the function of glutathione, it is no longer used to treat vitamin K deficiency.^[1]

Health effects

Osteoporosis

There is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation benefits the bone health of postmenopausal women.^[3]

Cardiovascular health

Adequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,^[4] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.^[5]

One 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women.^[8]

Cancer

Vitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; however, no good medical evidence supports such claims.^[6]

Vitamin K is one of the treatments for bleeding events caused by overdose of the anticoagulant drug warfarin (Coumadin®).^[7] Vitamin K is also part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning).^[8]

Side effects

Although allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K₁) or menaquinone (vitamin K₂) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set.^[9]

Blood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K₂ (as MK-4)^[10] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K₂ (as MK-4),^[11] showed no increase in blood clot risk. Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur.^[12]

Unlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K₁ and vitamin K₂ and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K₃ (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels. The U.S. FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells.^[1]

Interactions

Phylloquinone (K₁)^[13]^[14] or menaquinone (K₂) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin). Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K.

Supplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs.^[15] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable.^[15] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient.{{Citation needed|reason=no reference given|date=May 2013}} The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin nor vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given.^[16]

The newer anticoagulants apixaban, dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K.^[17]^[18]

Chemistry

The structure of phylloquinone, Vitamin K₁, is marked by the presence of a phytyl group.^[24] The structures of menaquinones are marked by the polyisoprenyl side chain present in the molecule that can contain six to 13 isoprenyl units.^[24]

The three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K₃ (menadione), K₄, and K₅, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K₃) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K₅).^[19]

Conversion of vitamin K₁ to vitamin K₂

The MK-4 form of vitamin K₂ is produced by conversion of vitamin K₁ in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls.^[20] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats^[21]^[22] and in parenterally administered K₁ in rats.^[23]^[24] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K₁ into MK-4.^[21]^[25] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K₁ to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K₂ in the MK-4 (menatetrenone) form.^[26]

Vitamin K₂

Vitamin K₂ (menaquinone) includes several subtypes. The two most studied ones are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7).

Physiology

Vitamin K₁, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis. For this reason, vitamin K₁ is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale, and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc.). Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little. The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as "vitamin K") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction.

Vitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues. The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains. Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins.^[27]

When Vitamin K₁ enters the body through foods in a person's diet, it is absorbed through the jejunum and ileum in the small intestine^[24], and like other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body.

Absorption and dietary need

Previous theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule. Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K₂ by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad-spectrum antibiotic use.^[35] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics.^[36] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration.^[37] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype.^[38] Additionally, the elderly have a reduction in vitamin K₂.^[39]

Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin K in 1998. The IOM does not distinguish between K₁ and K₂ – both are counted as vitamin K. At that time, sufficient information was not available to establish EARs and RDAs for vitamin K. In instances such as these, the board sets Adequate Intakes (AIs), with the understanding that at some later date, AIs will be replaced by more exact information. The current AIs for adult women and men ages 19 and up are 90 and 120 μg/day, respectively. AI for pregnancy is 90 μg/day. AI for lactation is 90 μg/day. For infants up to 12 months, the AI is 2.0-2.5 μg/day; for children ages 1–18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. Vitamin K has no UL, as human data for adverse effects from high doses are inadequate. Collectively, the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes.^[40]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in United States. For women and men over age 18 the AI is set at 70 μg/day. AI for pregnancy is 70 μg/day, ad for lactation 70 μg/day. For children ages 1–17 years, the AIs increase with age from 12 to 65 μg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs.^[41] The EFSA also reviewed the safety question and reached the same conclusion as in United States - that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin K.^[42]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin K labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 80 μg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised upwards to 120 μg, to bring it into agreement with the AI.^[43] A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017, the FDA released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies.^[44]

Food sources

Vitamin K₁

Vitamin K₁ is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils. Some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, also contain vitamin K. Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the recommended amounts.^[47]

The tight binding of vitamin K₁ to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable. For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat.^[48]

Vitamin K₂

Vitamin K₂, the form of generated by bacteria, can be found in eggs, dairy, and meat, as well as fermented foods such as cheese and yogurt.^[4]

Deficiency

Average diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults. Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e.g. alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries. Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants. Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown. Vitamin K deficiency has been defined as a vitamin K-responsive hypoprothrombinemia which increase prothrombin time^[40] and thus can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder.^[49] Symptoms of K₁ deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.

Biochemistry

Function in animals

The function of vitamin K₂ in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue. This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a "Gla protein". The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions. The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below.

Within the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR).^[55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase^[56]^[57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled. Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR. The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle.^[58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K₁ because, in part, vitamin K₁ is continuously recycled in cells.^[59]

Warfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR.^[60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient. This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla. Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury. As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose.

Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins

The following human Gla-containing proteins ("Gla proteins") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant protein C and protein S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z. The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown. Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells. In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity.

Gla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system. In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting.

Another interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus.^[61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human. Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues.^[62]

Methods of assessment

Function in bacteria

Many bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K₂ (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),^[71] but not vitamin K₁ (phylloquinone). In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration).^[72] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone. The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor). Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively.

Some of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate. In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O₂), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water. E. coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration.

Injection in newborns

The blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts. Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K₁, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas. Vitamin K₂ concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K₁. Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0.25–1.7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births.^[73] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency.

Bleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death. Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn. Intramuscular administration (known as the Vitamin K shot^[74]) is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration.^[75]^[76]

United States

As a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0.5–1 mg of vitamin K₁ be administered to all newborns shortly after birth.^[75]

United Kingdom

In the UK, vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours.^[77] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month.^[78]

Controversy

Controversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer.^[79] However, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two.^[80] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,^[81] after treating children for serious bleeding problems. They cited lack of newborn vitamin K administration as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose.

History

In 1929, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet.^[82] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC).^[83] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow. They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites.^[84] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet. It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin. The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin. Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K.^[85] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K₁ and K₂) published in 1939. Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939.^[86]

For several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food. The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content. Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg).^[87]

The first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous.^[88]

The precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al.,^[89] Nelsestuen et al.,^[90] and Magnusson et al.^[91]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin. It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla.

References

1. ^¹²³{{cite web | title = Vitamin K | publisher = Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR | date = July 2014 | url = http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminK/ | accessdate = 20 March 2017 }}
2. ^{{cite web | title=Vitamin K Overview | url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-k-000343.htm | publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center}}
3. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hamidi | first1 = M. S. | last2 = Gajic-Veljanoski | first2 = O. | last3 = Cheung | first3 = A. M. | title = Vitamin K and bone health | journal = Journal of Clinical Densitometry | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 409–413 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24090644 | doi = 10.1016/j.jocd.2013.08.017 | type = Review }}
4. ^¹{{cite journal | last = Maresz | first = K. | title = Proper Calcium Use: Vitamin K₂ as a Promoter of Bone and Cardiovascular Health | journal = Integrative Medicine | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–39 | date = Feb 2015 | pmid = 26770129 | pmc = 4566462 | doi = | type = Review }}
5. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hartley | first1 = L. | last2 = Clar | first2 = C. | last3 = Ghannam | first3 = O. | last4 = Flowers | first4 = N. | last5 = Stranges | first5 = S. | last6 = Rees | first6 = K. | title = Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = CD011148 | date = Sep 2015 | pmid = 26389791 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2 | type = Systematic review }}
6. ^{{cite book |publisher=American Cancer Society |title=American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-944235-71-3 |editor-last=Ades |editor-first=T. B. |pages=558–563|chapter=Vitamin K}}
7. ^{{cite journal|last1=Ageno|first1=W|last2=Gallus|first2=AS|last3=Wittkowsky|first3=A|last4=Crowther|first4=M|last5=Hylek|first5=EM|last6=Palareti|first6=G|last7=American College of Chest|first7=Physicians.|title=Oral anticoagulant therapy: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines.|journal=Chest|date=February 2012|volume=141|issue=2 Suppl|pages=e44S–88S|pmid=22315269|doi=10.1378/chest.11-2292|pmc=3278051}}
8. ^{{cite web | url = http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/818130-clinical#showall | title = Rodenticide Toxicity Treatment & Management | last = Lung | first = D. | editor-last = Tarabar | editor-first = A. | work = Medscape | publisher = WebMD | date = Dec 2015 }}
9. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Rasmussen | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Andersen | first2 = N. L. | last3 = Dragsted | first3 = L. O. | last4 = Larsen | first4 = J. C. | title = A safe strategy for addition of vitamins and minerals to foods | journal = European Journal of Nutrition | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 123–135 | date = Mar 2006 | pmid = 16200467 | pmc = | doi = 10.1007/s00394-005-0580-9 }}
10. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ushiroyama | first1 = T. | last2 = Ikeda | first2 = A. | last3 = Ueki | first3 = M | title = Effect of continuous combined therapy with vitamin K₂ and vitamin D₃ on bone mineral density and coagulofibrinolysis function in postmenopausal women | journal = Maturitas | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 211–221 | date = Mar 2002 | pmid = 11886767 | doi = 10.1016/S0378-5122(01)00275-4 }}
11. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Asakura | first1 = H. | last2 = Myou | first2 = S. | last3 = Ontachi | first3 = Y. | last4 = Mizutani | first4 = T. | last5 = Kato | first5 = M. | last6 = Saito | first6 = M. | last7 = Morishita | first7 = E. | last8 = Yamazaki | first8 = M. | last9 = Nakao | first9 = S. | title = Vitamin K administration to elderly patients with osteoporosis induces no hemostatic activation, even in those with suspected vitamin K deficiency | journal = Osteoporosis International | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = 996–1000 | date = Dec 2001 | pmid = 11846334 | doi = 10.1007/s001980170007 }}
12. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ronden | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Groenen-van Dooren | first2 = M. M. | last3 = Hornstra | first3 = G. | last4 = Vermeer | first4 = C. | title = Modulation of arterial thrombosis tendency in rats by vitamin K and its side chains | journal = Atherosclerosis | volume = 132 | issue = 1 | pages = 61–67 | date = Jul 1997 | pmid = 9247360 | doi = 10.1016/S0021-9150(97)00087-7 }}
13. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ansell | first1 = J. | last2 = Hirsh | first2 = J. | last3 = Poller | first3 = L. | last4 = Bussey | first4 = H. | last5 = Jacobson | first5 = A. | last6 = Hylek | first6 = E | title = The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy | journal = Chest | volume = 126 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 204S–233S | date = Sep 2004 | pmid = 15383473 | doi = 10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.204S }}
14. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Crowther | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Douketis | first2 = J. D. | last3 = Schnurr | first3 = T. | last4 = Steidl | first4 = L. | last5 = Mera | first5 = V. | last6 = Ultori | first6 = C. | last7 = Venco | first7 = A. | last8 = Ageno | first8 = W. | title = Oral vitamin K lowers the international normalized ratio more rapidly than subcutaneous vitamin K in the treatment of warfarin-associated coagulopathy. A randomized, controlled trial | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 137 | issue = 4 | pages = 251–254 | date = Aug 2002 | pmid = 12186515 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-137-4-200208200-00009 }}
15. ^¹{{cite web|title=Important Information to Know When You Are Taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K|url=http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/drug_nutrient/coumadin1.pdf|publisher=National Institute of Health Clinical Center Drug-Nutrient Interaction Task Force|accessdate=17 Apr 2015}}
16. ^{{cite web|title=Guidelines For Warfarin Reversal With Vitamin K|url=http://www.ashp.org/s_ashp/docs/files/member/SPPM_Warfarin_Reversal_Vitamin_K.pdf|publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=17 Apr 2015}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.pradaxapro.com/dabigatran-etexilate/important-safety-information|title=Pradaxa Drug Interactions|website=Pradaxapro.com|date=10 July 2017|accessdate=10 July 2017}}
18. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Bauersachs | first1 = R. | last2 = Berkowitz | first2 = S. D. | last3 = Brenner | first3 = B. | last4 = Buller | first4 = H. R. | last5 = Decousus | first5 = H. | last6 = Gallus | first6 = A. S. | last7 = Lensing | first7 = A. W. | last8 = Misselwitz | first8 = F. | last9 = Prins | first9 = M. H. | last10 = Raskob | first10 = G. E. | last11 = Segers | first11 = A. | last12 = Verhamme | first12 = P. | last13 = Wells | first13 = P. | last14 = Agnelli | first14 = G. | last15 = Bounameaux | first15 = H. | last16 = Cohen | first16 = A. | last17 = Davidson | first17 = B. L. | last18 = Piovella | first18 = F. | last19 = Schellong | first19 = S. | title = Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 363 | issue = 26 | pages = 2499–2510 | date = Dec 2010 | pmid = 21128814 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1007903 | url = http://annals.org/data/Journals/AIM/926759/0000605-201304160-02002.pdf }}
19. ^{{cite web|last=McGee|first=W. | publisher=MedlinePlus|title=Vitamin K|date=1 Feb 2007|accessdate=2 Apr 2009|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002407.htm}}
20. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Shearer | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Newman | first2 = P. | title = Metabolism and cell biology of vitamin K | journal = Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 100 | issue = 4 | pages = 530–547 | date = Oct 2008 | pmid = 18841274 | doi = 10.1160/TH08-03-0147 }}
21. ^¹{{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = R. T. | last2 = Foley | first2 = A. L. | last3 = Engelke | first3 = J. A. | last4 = Suttie | first4 = J. W. | title = Conversion of dietary phylloquinone to tissue menaquinone-4 in rats is not dependent on gut bacteria | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 128 | issue = 2 | pages = 220–223 | date = Feb 1998 | pmid = 9446847 | doi = 10.1093/jn/128.2.220 }}
22. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ronden | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Drittij-Reijnders | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Vermeer | first3 = C. | last4 = Thijssen | first4 = H. H. | title = Intestinal flora is not an intermediate in the phylloquinone–menaquinone-4 conversion in the rat | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1379 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–75 | date = Jan 1998 | pmid = 9468334 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-4165(97)00089-5 }}
23. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Thijssen | first1 = H. .H. | last2 = Drittij-Reijnders | first2 = M. J. | title = Vitamin K distribution in rat tissues: dietary phylloquinone is a source of tissue menaquinone-4 | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 72 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–425 | date = Sep 1994 | pmid = 7947656 | doi = 10.1079/BJN19940043 }}
24. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Will | first1 = B. H. | last2 = Usui | first2 = Y. | last3 = Suttie | first3 = J. W. | title = Comparative metabolism and requirement of vitamin K in chicks and rats | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 122 | issue = 12 | pages = 2354–2360 | date = Dec 1992 | pmid = 1453219 | doi=10.1093/jn/122.12.2354}}
25. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ronden | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Drittij-Reijnders | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Vermeer | first3 = C. | last4 = Thijssen | first4 = H. H. | title = Intestinal flora is not an intermediate in the phylloquinone-menaquinone-4 conversion in the rat | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1379 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–75 | date = Jan 1998 | pmid = 9468334 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-4165(97)00089-5 }}
26. ^{{cite thesis | last = Al Rajabi | first = Ala | year = 2011 | url = http://gradworks.umi.com/34/56/3456517.html | title = The Enzymatic Conversion of Phylloquinone to Menaquinone-4 | degree = PhD | publisher = Tufts University, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy}}
27. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Furie | first1 = B. | last2 = Bouchard | first2 = B. A. | last3 = Furie | first3 = B. C. | title = Vitamin K-dependent biosynthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid | journal = Blood | volume = 93 | issue = 6 | pages = 1798–1808 | date = Mar 1999 | pmid = 10068650 | url = http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/93/6/1798 }}
28. ^{{cite journal | last = Mann | first = K. G. | title = Biochemistry and physiology of blood coagulation | journal = Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 82 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–174 | date = Aug 1999 | pmid = 10605701 | url = http://www.schattauer.de/index.php?id=1268&pii=th99080165&no_cache=1 | doi = 10.1055/s-0037-1615780 }}
29. ^{{cite journal | last = Price | first = P. A. | title = Role of vitamin-K-dependent proteins in bone metabolism | journal = Annual Review of Nutrition | volume = 8 | pages = 565–583 | year = 1988 | pmid = 3060178 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.nu.08.070188.003025 }}
30. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Coutu | first1 = D. L. | last2 = Wu | first2 = J. H. | last3 = Monette | first3 = A. | last4 = Rivard | first4 = G. E. | last5 = Blostein | first5 = M. D. | last6 = Galipeau | first6 = J | title = Periostin, a member of a novel family of vitamin K-dependent proteins, is expressed by mesenchymal stromal cells | journal = Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 283 | issue = 26 | pages = 17991–18001 | date = Jun 2008 | pmid = 18450759 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M708029200 }}
31. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Viegas | first1 = C. S. | last2 = Simes | first2 = D. C. | last3 = Laizé | first3 = V. | last4 = Williamson | first4 = M. K. | last5 = Price | first5 = P. A. | last6 = Cancela | first6 = M. L. | title = Gla-rich protein (GRP), a new vitamin K-dependent protein identified from sturgeon cartilage and highly conserved in vertebrates | journal = Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 283 | issue = 52 | pages = 36655–36664 | date = Dec 2008 | pmid = 18836183 | pmc = 2605998 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M802761200 }}
32. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Viegas | first1 = C. S. | last2 = Cavaco | first2 = S. | last3 = Neves | first3 = P. L. | last4 = Ferreira | first4 = A. | last5 = João | first5 = A. | last6 = Williamson | first6 = M. K. | last7 = Price | first7 = P. A. | last8 = Cancela | first8 = M. L. | last9 = Simes | first9 = D. C. | title = Gla-rich protein is a novel vitamin K-dependent protein present in serum that accumulates at sites of pathological calcifications | journal = American Journal of Pathology | volume = 175 | issue = 6 | pages = 2288–2298 | date = Dec 2009 | pmid = 19893032 | pmc = 2789615 | doi = 10.2353/ajpath.2009.090474 }}
33. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hafizi | first1 = S. | last2 = Dahlbäck | first2 = B. | title = Gas6 and protein S. Vitamin K-dependent ligands for the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase subfamily | journal = The FEBS Journal | volume = 273 | issue = 23 | pages = 5231–5244 | date = Dec 2006 | pmid = 17064312 | doi = 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05529.x }}
34. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Kulman | first1 = J. D. | last2 = Harris | first2 = J. E. | last3 = Xie | first3 = L. | last4 = Davie | first4 = E. W. | title = Proline-rich Gla protein 2 is a cell-surface vitamin K-dependent protein that binds to the transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 104 | issue = 21 | pages = 8767–8772 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17502622 | pmc = 1885577 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0703195104 }}
35. ^{{cite web| title=Vitamin K| accessdate=26 May 2009|url= https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitamink.html|work=MedlinePlus|publisher= US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health|date=Sep 2016}}
36. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Conly | first1 = J | last2 = Stein | first2 = K. | title = Reduction of vitamin K₂ concentrations in human liver associated with the use of broad spectrum antimicrobials | journal = Clinical and Investigative Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 531–539 | date = Dec 1994 | pmid = 7895417 }}
37. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ferland | first1 = G. | last2 = Sadowski | first2 = J. A. | last3 = O'Brien | first3 = M. E. | title = Dietary induced subclinical vitamin K deficiency in normal human subjects | journal = Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 1761–1768 | date = Apr 1993 | pmid = 8473516 | pmc = 288156 | doi = 10.1172/JCI116386 }}
38. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Holden | first1 = R. M. | last2 = Morton | first2 = A. R. | last3 = Garland | first3 = J. S. | last4 = Pavlov | first4 = A. | last5 = Day | first5 = A. G. | last6 = Booth | first6 = S. L. | title = Vitamins K and D status in stages 3-5 chronic kidney disease | journal = Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 590–597 | date = Apr 2010 | pmid = 20167683 | pmc = 2849681 | doi = 10.2215/CJN.06420909 }}
39. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hodges | first1 = S. J. | last2 = Pilkington | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Shearer | first3 = M. J. | last4 = Bitensky | first4 = L. | last5 = Chayen | first5 = J | title = Age-related changes in the circulating levels of congeners of vitamin K₂, menaquinone-7 and menaquinone-8 | journal = Clinical Science | volume = 78 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–66 | date = Jan 1990 | pmid = 2153497 | doi=10.1042/cs0780063}}
40. ^¹²³⁴{{cite book|chapter=Vitamin K|chapter-url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10026/chapter/7 |title=Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc|publisher=National Academy Press|date=2001|pages=162–196}}
41. ^{{cite web | title = Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies| year = 2017| url = https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf}}
42. ^{{cite web | title = Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals| publisher = European Food Safety Authority| year = 2006| url = http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf}}
43. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-05-27/pdf/2016-11867.pdf |title=Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982.}}
44. ^[https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm385663.htm#dates "Changes to the Nutrition Facts Panel - Compliance Date"]
45. ^¹Rhéaume-Bleue, p. 42
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/drug_nutrient/coumadin1.pdf|title=Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K|publisher=National Institutes of Health Clinical Center}}
47. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/|title=Nutrition facts, calories in food, labels, nutritional information and analysis|website=Nutritiondata.com|date=13 Feb 2008|accessdate=21 Apr 2013}}
48. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/misc_topics/vitamink.html|title=Vitamin K|website=Vivo.colostate.edu|date=2 Jul 1999|accessdate=21 Apr 2013}}
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminK/|website=Micronutrient Data Centre|title=Vitamin K}}
50. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ikeda | first1 = Y. |last2 = Iki | first2 = M. | last3 = Morita | first3 = A. | last4 = Kajita | first4 = E. | last5 = Kagamimori | first5 = S. | last6 = Kagawa | first6 = Y. | last7 = Yoneshima | first7 = H. | title = Intake of fermented soybeans, natto, is associated with reduced bone loss in postmenopausal women: Japanese Population-Based Osteoporosis (JPOS) Study | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 136 | issue = 5 | pages = 1323–1328 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16614424 | doi=10.1093/jn/136.5.1323}}
51. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Katsuyama | first1 = H. | last2 = Ideguchi | first2 = S. | last3 = Fukunaga | first3 = M. | last4 = Saijoh | first4 = K. | last5 = Sunami | first5 = S. | title = Usual dietary intake of fermented soybeans (Natto) is associated with bone mineral density in premenopausal women | journal = Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 207–215 | date = Jun 2002 | pmid = 12350079 | doi = 10.3177/jnsv.48.207 }}
52. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Sano | first1 = M. | last2 = Fujita | first2 = H. | last3 = Morita | first3 = I. | last4 = Uematsu | first4 = H. | last5 = Murota | first5 = S. | title = Vitamin K₂ (menatetrenone) induces iNOS in bovine vascular smooth muscle cells: no relationship between nitric oxide production and gamma-carboxylation | journal = Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology | volume = 45 | issue = 6 | pages = 711–723 | date = Dec 1999 | pmid = 10737225 | doi = 10.3177/jnsv.45.711 }}
53. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Gast | first1 = G. C | last2 = de Roos | first2 = N. M. | last3 = Sluijs | first3 = I. | last4 = Bots | first4 = M. L. | last5 = Beulens | first5 = J. W. | last6 = Geleijnse | first6 = J. M. | last7 = Witteman | first7 = J. C. | last8 = Grobbee | first8 = D. E. | last9 = Peeters | first9 = P. H. | last10 = van der Schouw | first10 = Y. T. | title = A high menaquinone intake reduces the incidence of coronary heart disease | journal = Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases | volume = 19 | issue = 7 | pages = 504–510 | date = Sep 2009 | pmid = 19179058 | pmc = | doi = 10.1016/j.numecd.2008.10.004 }}
54. ^¹{{cite journal | last1 = Geleijnse | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Vermeer | first2 = C. | last3 = Grobbee | first3 = D. E. | last4 = Schurgers | first4 = L. J. | last5 = Knapen | first5 = M. H. | last6 = van der Meer | first6 = I. M. | last7 = Hofman | first7 = A. | last8 = Witteman | first8 = J. C. | title = Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 134 | issue = 11 | pages = 3100–3105 | date = Nov 2004 | pmid = 15514282 | doi=10.1093/jn/134.11.3100}}
55. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Oldenburg | first1 = J. | last2 = Bevans | first2 = C. G. | last3 = Müller | first3 = C. R. | last4 = Watzka | first4 = M. | title = Vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (VKORC1): the key protein of the vitamin K cycle | journal = Antioxidants & Redox Signaling | volume = 8 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 347–353 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16677080 | doi = 10.1089/ars.2006.8.347 }}
56. ^{{cite journal | last = Suttie | first = J. W. | title = Vitamin K-dependent carboxylase | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 54 | pages = 459–477 | year = 1985 | pmid = 3896125 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.bi.54.070185.002331 }}
57. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Presnell | first1 = S. R. | last2 = Stafford | first2 = D. W. | title = The vitamin K-dependent carboxylase | journal = Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 87 | issue = 6 | pages = 937–946 | date = Jun 2002 | pmid = 12083499 | doi = 10.1055/s-0037-1613115 }}
58. ^{{cite journal | last = Stafford | first = D. W. | title = The vitamin K cycle | journal = Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | pages = 1873–1878 | date = Aug 2005 | pmid = 16102054 | doi = 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01419.x }}
59. ^Rhéaume-Bleue, p. 79.
60. ^{{cite journal | last = Whitlon | first1 = D. S. | last2 = Sadowski | first2 = J. A. | last3 = Suttie | first3 = J. W. | title = Mechanism of coumarin action: significance of vitamin K epoxide reductase inhibition | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 17 | issue = 8 | pages = 1371–1377 | date = Apr 1978 | pmid = 646989 | doi = 10.1021/bi00601a003 }}
61. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Terlau | first1 = H. | last2 = Olivera | first2 = B. M. | title = Conus venoms: a rich source of novel ion channel-targeted peptides | journal = Physiological Reviews | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–68 | date = Jan 2004 | pmid = 14715910 | doi = 10.1152/physrev.00020.2003 }}
62. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Buczek | first1 = O. | last2 = Bulaj | first2 = G. | last3 = Olivera | first3 = BM | title = Conotoxins and the posttranslational modification of secreted gene products | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 62 | issue = 24 | pages = 3067–3079 | date = Dec 2005 | pmid = 16314929 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-005-5283-0 }}
63. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/prothrombin-time|title=Prothrombin Time|website=WebMD}}
64. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Dituri | first1 = F. | last2 = Buonocore | first2 = G. | last3 = Pietravalle | first3 = A. | last4 = Naddeo | first4 = F. | last5 = Cortesi | first5 = M | last6 = Pasqualetti | first6 = P | last7 = Tataranno M. L. | first8 = Agostino | last8 = R. | title = PIVKA-II plasma levels as markers of subclinical vitamin K deficiency in term infants | journal = Journal of Maternal, Fetal & Neonatal Medicine | volume = 25 | issue = 9 | pages = 1660–1663 | date = Sep 2012 | pmid = 22280352 | doi = 10.3109/14767058.2012.657273 }}
65. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Thane | first1 = C. W. | last2 = Bates | first2 = C. J. | last3 = Shearer | first3 = M. J. | last4 = Unadkat | first4 = N |last5 = Harrington | first5 = D. J. | last6 = Paul | first6 = A. A. | last7 = Prentice | first7 = A. | last8 = Bolton-Smith | first8 = C. | title = Plasma phylloquinone (vitamin K₁) concentration and its relationship to intake in a national sample of British elderly people | journal = British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 87 | issue = 6 | pages = 615–622 | date = Jun 2002 | pmid = 12067432 | doi = 10.1079/BJNBJN2002582 }}
66. ^{{cite journal | last1 = McKeown | first1 = N. M. | last2 = Jacques | first2 = P. F. | last3 = Gundberg | first3 = C. M. | last4 = Peterson | first4 = J. W. | last5 = Tucker | first5 = K. L. | last6 = Kiel | first6 = D. P. | last7 = Wilson | first7 = P. W. | last8 = Booth | first8 = SL | title = Dietary and nondietary determinants of vitamin K biochemical measures in men and women | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 132 | issue = 6 | pages = 1329–1334 | date = Jun 2002 | pmid = 12042454 | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/content/132/6/1329.full.pdf | doi=10.1093/jn/132.6.1329}}
67. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Yamano | first1 = M. | last2 = Yamanaka | first2 = Y. | last3 = Yasunaga | first3 = K. | last4 = Uchida | first4 = K. | title = Effect of vitamin K deficiency on urinary gamma-carboxyglutamic acid excretion in rats | journal = Nihon Ketsueki Gakkai Zasshi | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 1078–1086 | date = Sep 1989 | pmid = 2588957 }}
68. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Matsumoto | first1 = T. | last2 = Miyakawa | first2 = T. | last3 = Yamamoto | first3 = D. | title = Effects of vitamin K on the morphometric and material properties of bone in the tibiae of growing rats | journal = Metabolism | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 407–414 | date = Mar 2012 | pmid = 21944271 | doi = 10.1016/j.metabol.2011.07.018 }}
69. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Je | first1 = S.-H. | last2 = Joo | first2 = N.-S. | last3 = Choi | first3 = B.-H. | last4 = Kim | first4 = K.-M. | last5 = Kim | first5 = B.-T. | last6 = Park | first6 = S.-B. | last7 = Cho | first7 = D.-Y. | last8 = Kim | first8 = K.-N. | last9 = Lee | first9 = D.-J. | title = Vitamin K supplement along with vitamin D and calcium reduced serum concentration of undercarboxylated osteocalcin while increasing bone mineral density in Korean postmenopausal women over sixty-years-old | journal = Journal of Korean Medical Science | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 1093–1098 | date = Aug 2011 | pmid = 21860562 | pmc = 3154347 | doi = 10.3346/jkms.2011.26.8.1093 }}
70. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.metametrix.com/test-menu/profiles/vitamins/vitamin-k|title=Genova Diagnostics (GDX) – Diagnostic Laboratory Testing for Wellness & Preventive Medicine|work=metametrix.com}}
71. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Bentley | first1 = R. | last2 = Meganathan | first2 = R. | title = Biosynthesis of vitamin K (menaquinone) in bacteria | journal = Microbiological Reviews | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 241–280 | date = Sep 1982 | pmid = 6127606 | pmc = 281544 | url = http://mmbr.asm.org/content/46/3/241.full.pdf }}
72. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Haddock | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Jones | first2 = C. W. | title = Bacterial respiration | journal = Bacteriological Reviews | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–99 | date = Mar 1977 | pmid = 140652 | pmc = 413996 | url = http://mmbr.asm.org/content/41/1/47.full.pdf }}
73. ^{{cite journal | last = Shearer | first = M. J. | title = Vitamin K | journal = Lancet | volume = 345 | issue = 8944 | pages = 229–234 | date = Jan 1995 | pmid = 7823718 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90227-9 }}
74. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/KVitamin.html|title=Vitamin K Shot – Essential in Preventing Serious Bleeding in Newborns|last=|first=|date=2017-09-15|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2018-07-06}}
75. ^¹{{cite journal | title = Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 112 | issue = 1.1 | pages = 191–192 | date = 2003 | pmid = 12837888 | doi = 10.1542/peds.112.1.191 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/112/1/191.full.pdf | author1 = American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus Newborn. }}
76. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Mihatsch WA, Braegger C, Bronsky J, Campoy C, Domellöf M, Fewtrell M, Mis NF, Hojsak I, Hulst J, Indrio F, Lapillonne A, Mlgaard C, Embleton N, van Goudoever J |title=Prevention of Vitamin K Deficiency Bleeding in Newborn Infants: A Position Paper by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=123–129 |date=2016 |pmid=27050049 |doi=10.1097/MPG.0000000000001232 |url=}}
77. ^{{cite web | last1 = Logan | first1 = S. | last2 = Gilbert | first2 = R. | title = Vitamin K For Newborn Babies | publisher = Department of Health | accessdate = 12 Oct 2014 | url = http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4013398.pdf | archive-url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4013398.pdf | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 7 January 2013 | year = 1998 }}
78. ^{{cite web|title=Postnatal care: Routine postnatal care of women and their babies [CG37]|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg37/chapter/guidance#maintaining-infant-health|website=www.nice.org.uk|publisher=NICE|accessdate=12 Oct 2014|date=Jul 2006}}
79. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Parker | first1 = L. | last2 = Cole | first2 = M. | last3 = Craft | first3 = A. W. | last4 = Hey | first4 = E. N. | title = Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) | volume = 316 | issue = 7126 | pages = 189–193 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9468683 | pmc = 2665412 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.316.7126.189 }}
80. ^{{cite journal | last = McMillan | first = D. D. |title=Routine administration of vitamin K to newborns |journal=Paediatric Child Health |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=429–431 |year=1997|url=http://www.cps.ca/documents/position/administration-vitamin-K-newborns| doi = 10.1093/pch/2.6.429 }}
81. ^{{cite web | title = Newborns get rare disorder after parents refused shots | url = http://www.tennessean.com/story/news/health/2014/04/08/newborns-get-rare-disorder-parents-refused-shots/7463549/ | quote = "Having four cases since February just at Vanderbilt was a little bit concerning to me"}}
82. ^{{cite journal | last = Dam | first = C. P. H. | authorlink = Carl Peter Henrik Dam | year = 1935 | title = The Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick: Occurrence And Chemical Nature | journal = Nature | volume = 135 | issue = 3417 | pages = 652–653 | doi = 10.1038/135652b0 }}
83. ^{{cite journal | last = Dam | first = C. P. H. | authorlink = Carl Peter Henrik Dam | year = 1941 | title = The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application |url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1943/dam-lecture.pdf| journal = Nobel Prize Laureate Lecture }}
84. ^{{cite journal | last = McAlister | first = V. C. | year = 2006 | title = Control of coagulation: a gift of Canadian agriculture | url = http://www.csci-scrc.org/cim/cim_dec2006.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100306162601/http://www.csci-scrc.org/cim/cim_dec2006.pdf | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 2010-03-06 | journal = Clinical and Investigative Medicine | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 373–377 }}
85. ^{{cite journal | last1 = MacCorquodale | first1 = D. W. | last2 = Binkley | first2 = S. B. | last3 = Thayer | first3 = S. A. | last4 = Doisy | first4 = E. A. |author4-link= Edward Adelbert Doisy | year = 1939 | title = On the constitution of Vitamin K₁|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=61|issue=7|pages=1928–1929|doi=10.1021/ja01876a510 }}
86. ^{{cite journal|last=Fieser|first=L. F. | year = 1939 |title=Synthesis of Vitamin K₁|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=61|issue=12|pages=3467–3475|doi=10.1021/ja01267a072 }}
87. ^{{cite web | last = Dam | first = C. P. H.|authorlink=Carl Peter Henrik Dam| date = 12 Dec 1946 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1943/dam-lecture.pdf | title = The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application | work = Nobel Prize lecture }}
88. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Warner | first1 =E. D. | last2 = Brinkhous | first2 = K. M. | last3 = Smith | first3 = H. P. | year = 1938 | journal = Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 628–630 | doi = 10.3181/00379727-37-9668P | title = Bleeding Tendency of Obstructive Jaundice}}
89. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Stenflo | first1 = J | last2 = Fernlund | first2 = P. | last3 = Egan | first3 = W. | last4 = Roepstorff | first4 = P. | title = Vitamin K dependent modifications of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 71 | issue = 7 | pages = 2730–2733 | date = Jul 1974 | pmid = 4528109 | pmc = 388542 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.71.7.2730 }}
90. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Nelsestuen | first1 = G. L. | last2 = Zytkovicz | first2 = T. H. | last3 = Howard | first3 = J. B. | title = The mode of action of vitamin K. Identification of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid as a component of prothrombin | journal = Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 249 | issue = 19 | pages = 6347–6350 | date = Oct 1974 | pmid = 4214105 | url = http://www.jbc.org/content/249/19/6347.full.pdf }}
91. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Magnusson | first1 = S. | last2 = Sottrup-Jensen | first2 = L. | last3 = Petersen | first3 = T. E. | last4 = Morris | first4 = H. R. | last5 = Dell | first5 = A. | title = Primary structure of the vitamin K-dependent part of prothrombin | journal = FEBS Letters | volume = 44 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–193 | date = Aug 1974 | pmid = 4472513 | doi = 10.1016/0014-5793(74)80723-4 }}

Health effects

Osteoporosis

Cardiovascular health

Cancer

Side effects

Interactions

Chemistry

Conversion of vitamin K₁ to vitamin K₂

Vitamin K₂

Physiology

Absorption and dietary need

Dietary recommendations

Food sources

Vitamin K₁

Vitamin K₂

Deficiency

Biochemistry

Function in animals

Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins

Methods of assessment

Function in bacteria

Injection in newborns

United States

United Kingdom

Controversy

History

References

Bibliography

External links

Health effects

Osteoporosis

Cardiovascular health

Cancer

Side effects

Interactions

Chemistry

Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2

Vitamin K2

Physiology

Absorption and dietary need

Dietary recommendations

Food sources

Vitamin K1

Vitamin K2

Deficiency

Biochemistry

Function in animals

Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins

Methods of assessment

Function in bacteria

Injection in newborns

United States

United Kingdom

Controversy

History

References

Bibliography

External links

Conversion of vitamin K₁ to vitamin K₂

Vitamin K₂

Vitamin K₁

Vitamin K₂