“Vlachs”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

As a contemporary term, in the English language, the Vlachs are the Eastern Romance-speaking peoples who live south of the Danube in what are now eastern Serbia, southern Albania, northern Greece, the Republic of North Macedonia, and southwestern Bulgaria, as indigenous ethnic groups, such as the Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians (Macedoromanians), and Macedo-Vlachs.^[3] In Polish and Hungarian, derivations of the term were also applied to Italians. The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds^[4], and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively.{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} There is also a Vlach diaspora in other European countries, especially Romania, as well as in North America and Australia.^[3]

"Vlachs" were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians.^[5] According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period^[6] and western Balkan populations known as "Vlachs" also have had Romanized Illyrian origins.^[7]

Nowadays, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).^[8] All Balkan countries have indigenous Romance-speaking minorities.

Etymology and names

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, Oláh, Vlas, Ilac, Ulah, etc.^[1]) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe,{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā-^[9] (Caesar's {{lang-la|Volcae}}, Strabo and Ptolemy's {{lang-gr|Ouolkai}}).

Historically, the term was used primarily for the Romanians.^[1]^[3] Testimonies from the 13th-14th centuries show that, although in the European (and even extra-European) space they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (Oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used for themselves the endonym "Rumân/Român", from the Latin "Romanus" (in memory of Rome).^[1]

Via both Germanic and Latin, the term started to signify "stranger, foreigner" also in the Balkans, where it in its early form was used for Romance-speakers, but the term eventually took on the meaning of "shepherd, nomad".{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} The Romance-speaking communities themselves however used the endonym (they called themselves) "Romans".^[14]

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a social class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and had the same rights as Muslims.^[4] In Croatia, the term became derogatory, and Vlasi was used for the ethnic Serb community who, despite being Slavic, were given the term due to the Orthodox faith which they shared with the Vlachs.{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}}

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).^[15]^[16]

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.^[17]) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.{{sfn|Demirtaş-Coşkun|2001}}{{sfn|Tanner|2004}} In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.^[3] Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.^[3]

Medieval usage

6th century

The 7th century Byzantine historiographer Theophylact Simocatta wrote about “Blachernae” in connection with some historical data of the 6th century, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Maurice.^[21]

8th century

First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river; the original document containing the information is from the Konstamonitou monastery.^[22]

9th century

During the late 9th century the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin, where the province of Pannonia was inhabited by the "Slavs [Sclavi], Bulgarians [Bulgarii] and Vlachs [Blachii], and the shepherds of the Romans [pastores Romanorum]" (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum —according to the Gesta Hungarorum, written around 1200 by the anonymous chancellor of King Béla III of Hungary.^[23]

10th century

George Kedrenos mentioned about Vlachs in 976. The Vlachs were guides and guards of Roman caravans in Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.

11th century

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), described a 1066 revolt against the emperor in Northern Greece led by Nicolitzas Delphinas and other Vlachs.^[27]

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th–13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs.^[28]^[29]

12th century

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written in ca. 1113, wrote when the Volochi (Vlachs) attacked the Slavs of the Danube and settled among them and oppressed them, the Slavs departed and settled on the Vistula, under the name of Leshi.^[30] The Hungarians drove away the Vlachs and took the land and settled there.^[31]^[32]

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population.^[33]

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.^[34]^[35]

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

13th century

In 1213 an army of Romans (Vlachs), Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin.^[36] After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.^[37]

At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns.^[38]^[39] Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, and the last region defended by the Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between the Olt River and the Carpathians.^[40]^[41]

Shortly after the fall of the Olt region, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region.^[42] In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the settlers.^[43] The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum (Walachian law).^[44]

In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River. A town, Baia (near the said river), was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons (see also Foundation of Moldavia).^[45]^[46] In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia).^[47]

Toponymy

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.^[48] In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs.

Shepherd culture

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the pastoral groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.^[56]

The medieval Vlachs have elevated decorated funerary monuments in Herzegovina (Radimlja, Boljuni, Blidinje, etc) and surrounding countries. The Vlach origin of tombstones was attested by Bogumil Hrabak (1956) and Marian Wenzel (1962)^[57] and by the archeological and anthropological researches of skeleton remains from the graves under stećci.^[58]

See also

Notes

1. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web|url=http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/48209/1/Pop%2bIoan%2bAurel-Despre%2bsemnificatia%2bunor%2bnume-2009.pdf|title=On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Walllachian and Romania/Wallachia|author=Ioan-Aurel Pop|accessdate=18 June 2018}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=https://dexonline.ro/definitie/valah|publisher=dexonline.ro|title=Valah|work=Dicționare ale limbii române|accessdate=18 June 2018}}
3. ^¹²³⁴{{Britannica|631511|Vlach}}
4. ^¹{{cite book|author=Peter F. Sugar|title=Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|date=1 July 2012|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80363-0|p=39}}
5. ^Fine 1991, p. ?: "Traditionally scholars have seen the Dacians as ancestors of the modern Rumanians and Vlachs."
6. ^According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "România: Atlas Istorico-geografic", Academia Română 1996, {{ISBN|973-27-0500-0}}, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Migration period is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.
7. ^Badlands-Borderland: A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus [ILLUSTRATED] (Hardcover) by T.J. Winnifruth, {{ISBN|0-7156-3201-9}}, 2003, page 44: "Romanized Illyrians, the ancestors of the modern Vlachs".
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=http%3A%2F%2Fassembly.coe.int%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta97%2FEREC1333.htm |title=Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333 (1997) |publisher=Assembly.coe.int |date=1997-06-24 |accessdate=2013-02-08}}
9. ^Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
10. ^¹²{{cite book|author1=Juhani Nuorluoto|author2=Martti Leiwo|author3=Jussi Halla-aho|title=Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGsXAQAAIAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki|isbn=978-952-10-0246-5|quote=}}
11. ^{{cite journal|title=Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History|journal=The Proceedings of the Friesian School|author= Kelley L. Ross|year=2003|quote=Note: The Vlach Connection|url=http://www.friesian.com/decdenc2.htm|accessdate=2008-01-13}}
12. ^{{cite book|title=Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGmJqMflYgoC&pg=PA42|date=13 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25076-5|pages=42–}}
13. ^Karl Kaser, Hirten Kämpfer Stammeshelden. Böhlau Verlag, Wien-Köln-Weimar, 1992, p. 153
14. ^{{cite book|author=H. C. Darby|chapter=The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|volume=1|year=1957|p=34}}
15. ^Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.
16. ^G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78
17. ^[https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/balkan-vlachs-born-assimilate The Balkan Vlachs: Born to Assimilate?] at culturalsurvival.org
18. ^A. ARMBRUSTER, ROMANITATEA ROMÂNILOR ISTORIA UNEI IDEI, Editura Enciclopedica,1993
19. ^http://www.farsarotul.org/nl26_1.htm
20. ^http://www.friesian.com/decdenc2.htm
21. ^Theophylact Simocatta, 8.4.11-8.5.4 (Publisher. C. de Boer, 1972)
22. ^ Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126
23. ^*Gesta Hungarorum (a translation by Martyn Rady)
24. ^A. Decei, V. Ciocîltan, “La mention des Roumains (Walah) chez Al-Maqdisi,”in Romano-arabica I, Bucharest, 1974, pp. 49–54
25. ^ Ibn al Nadim, al-Fihrist. English translation: The Fihrist of al-Nadim. Editor și traducător: B. Dodge, New York, Columbia University Press, 1970, p. 37 with n.82
26. ^ Spinei, Victor, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill. 2009, p.83
27. ^G. Murnu, Când si unde se ivesc românii întâia dată în istorie, în „Convorbiri Literare”, XXX, pp. 97-112
28. ^Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana, in Drei lygisogur, ed. Å. Lagerholm (Halle/Saale, 1927), p. 29
29. ^V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p. 106, {{ISBN|9789047428800}}
30. ^HE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers
31. ^Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (English), The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, The Medieval Academy of America, CambridgeMassachusetts, 2012, p.62
32. ^C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire: 1790-1918, Faber & Faber, 4 sept. 2014, paragraf.185
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://users.clas.ufl.edu/fcurta/tudela.html}}
34. ^A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.
35. ^V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, {{ISBN|9789004175365}}
36. ^Curta, 2006, p. 385
37. ^Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, Bucureşti, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27
38. ^Simon de Kéza, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, IV,
39. ^G. Popa-Lisseanu, Izvoarele istoriei Românilor, IV, Bucuresti, 1935, p. .32
40. ^K. HOREDT, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei în secolele IV-XIII, Bucureşti, 1958, p.109-131. IDEM, Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter, Bonn, 1986, p.111 sqq.
41. ^I.M.Tiplic, CONSIDERAŢII CU PRIVIRE LA LINIILE ÎNTĂRITE DE TIPUL PRISĂCILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA(sec. IX-XIII)*ACTA TERRAE SEPTEMCASTRENSIS I, pp 147-164
42. ^A. IONIŢĂ, Date noi privind colonizarea germană în Ţara Bârsei şi graniţa de est a regatului maghiar în cea de a doua jumătate a secolului al XII-lea, în RI, 5, 1994, 3-4.
43. ^J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138
44. ^Stefan Pascu: A History of Transylvania, Wayne State Univ Pr, 1983, p. 57
45. ^Pavel Parasca, Cine a fost "Laslău craiul unguresc" din tradiţia medievală despre întemeierea Ţării Moldovei [=Who was "Laslău, Hungarian king" of the medieval tradition on the foundation of Moldavia]. In: Revista de istorie şi politică, An IV, Nr. 1.; ULIM;2011 {{ISSN|1857-4076}}
46. ^O. Pecican, Dragoș-vodă - originea ciclului legendar despre întemeierea Moldovei. În „Anuarul Institutului de Istorie și Arheologie Cluj”. T. XXXIII. Cluj-Napoca, 1994, pp. 221-232
47. ^D. CĂPRĂROIU, ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CÂMPULUNG, ″Historia Urbana″, t. XVI, nr. 1-2/2008, pp. 37-64
48. ^{{cite web|title=The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population|author=Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter|publisher=University of California|url=http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/hammel_1-fmt.html}}
49. ^A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106
50. ^A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992
51. ^¹²Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
52. ^Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases - these names disappear after 1980.
53. ^{{cite book|author1=Mircea Mușat|author2=Ion Ardeleanu|title=From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPsJAQAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică|quote=that in 1550 a foreign writer, the Italian Gromo, called the Banat "Valachia citeriore" (the Wallachia that stands on this side).}}
54. ^Z. Konečný, F. Mainus, Stopami minulosti: Kapitoly z dějin Moravy a Slezska/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia, Brno:Blok,1979
55. ^Anca & N.S. Tanașoca, Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică, Editura Fundației Pro, 2004
56. ^Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172
57. ^Marian Wenzel, “Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes-Who Made Them and Why?” Sudost-Forschungen 21 (1962): 102-143
58. ^Mužić, Ivan (2009). "Vlasi i starobalkanska pretkršćanska simbolika jelena na stećcima". Starohrvatska prosvjeta (in Croatian). Split: Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments. III (36): 315–349.