“Aram (Kural book)”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

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Aram (Kural book)

释义

Etymology
The book and its chapters
Grouping of chapters
Valluvar's position on aṟam or virtue
Influence
See also
Notes
Citations
References
Primary sources (Tamil) Secondary sources

The Book of Aṟam, in full Aṟattuppāl (Tamil: அறத்துப்பால், literally, “division of virtue”), also known as the Book of Virtue, the First Book or Book One in translated versions, is the first of the three books or parts of the Kural literature, a didactic work authored by the ancient Indian philosopher Valluvar. Written in High Tamil distich form, it has 38 chapters each containing 10 kurals or couplets, making a total of 380 couplets, all dealing with the fundamental virtues of an individual. Aṟam, the Tamil term that loosely corresponds to the English term 'virtue', correlates with the first of the four ancient Indian values of dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Book of Aṟam exclusively deals with virtues independent of the surroundings, including the vital principles of non-violence, moral vegetarianism or veganism,{{Ref label|A|a|none}} veracity, and righteousness.{{sfn|Natarajan, 2008|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}}

The Book of Aṟam is the most important and the most fundamental book of the Kural.{{sfn|Desigar, 1969|p=47}} This is revealed in the very order of the book within the Kural literature. The public life of a person as described by the Book of Poruḷ and the love life of a person as described by the Book of Inbam are presented to him or her only after the person secures his or her inner, moral growth described by the Book of Aṟam. In other words, only a morally and spiritually ripe person, who is considered cultured and civilized as dictated by the Book of Aṟam, is fit to enter public or political life, and the subsequent life of love.{{sfn|Zvelebil, 1973|p=165}}

Etymology

Aṟam is the Tamil word for what is known in Sanskrit as 'Dharma', and pāl means 'division'. The concept of aṟam or dharma is of pivotal importance in Indian philosophy and religion.{{sfn|Dhand, 2002|p=351}} It has multiple meanings and is a term common to Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.|pp=}} In Hinduism, the word signifies duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living."{{sfn|Columbia University Press, 2013}}{{sfn|Rosen, 2006}} In Buddhism, the word refers to "cosmic law and order," but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha.{{sfn|The Oxford University, n.d.}} In Jainism, the word refers to the teachings of tirthankara (Jina){{sfn|The Oxford University, n.d.}} and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. In Sikhism, the word means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.{{sfn|Singh, Fenech, and Rinehart, 2014|pp=138–139}} With a long and varied history, the word straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations, rendering it impossible to provide a single concise definition.{{sfn|Van Buitenen, 1957|p=36}} Thus, there is no equivalent single-word translation for aṟam or dharma in western languages.{{sfn|Widgery, 1930|pp=232–245}}{{sfn|Flood and Rocher, 2003}} Conversely, the term dharma is common to all languages within the Indian subcontinent.

The book and its chapters

The Book of Aṟam is the most important of all the books of the Tirukkural and is considered the most fundamental.{{sfn|Desigar, 1969|p=47}} The book exclusively deals with dharma, which is common to the entire work of the Tirukkural, thus providing the essence of the work as a whole.{{sfn|Kumaravelan, 2008|pp=4–17}} An exemplification for this is found in verse 34 of Purananuru,{{sfn|Alathur Kilar|pp=Verse 34}} where its author Alathur Kilar refers to the entire work of the Tirukkural by simply calling it as 'Aṟam'.{{sfn|Velusamy and Faraday, 2017|p=55}}{{sfn|Kowmareeshwari, 2012|pp=46–47}} In a practical sense, Book One deals with the essentials of the Yoga philosophy by expounding the household life that begins with compassion and ahimsa,{{sfn|Bharti, 2001|pp=672–691}}{{sfn|Varenne and Derek, 1977|pp=197–202}} ultimately leading to the path to renunciation.{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}}{{sfn|Mukherjee, 1999|pp=392–393}}

The Book of Aṟam contains the first 38 chapters of the Kural text, all dealing with fundamental virtue. The first four chapters, known as the introductory chapters, include 40 couplets on God, rain, characteristics of a righteous person, and assertion of virtue. The remaining chapters with 340 couplets are addressed to the common man or a householder, which includes 200 couplets on domestic virtue and 140 couplets on higher yet most fundamental virtue based on grace, benevolence and compassion.{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}}{{sfn|SSP, 2012|pp=vii–xvi}} All the couplets in the book essentially mandate the ethics of ahimsa (non-violence), meatless diet, casteless human brotherhood, absence of desires, path of righteousness and truth, and so forth.{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}}

{{hidden begin
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Book One—Virtue (அறத்துப்பால் Aṟattuppāl)

Chapter 1. The Praise of God (கடவுள் வாழ்த்து kaṭavuḷ vāḻttu): Couplets 1–10
Chapter 2. The Excellence of Rain (வான் சிறப்பு vāṉ ciṟappu): 11–20
Chapter 3. The Greatness of Ascetics (நீத்தார் பெருமை nīttār perumai): 21–30
Chapter 4. Assertion of the Strength of Virtue (அறன் வலியுறுத்தல் aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal): 31–40
Chapter 5. Domestic Life (இல்வாழ்க்கை ilvāḻkkai): 41–50
Chapter 6. The Goodness of the Help to Domestic Life (வாழ்க்கைத்துணை நலம் vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam): 51–60
Chapter 7. The Obtaining of Sons (புதல்வரைப் பெறுதல் putalvaraip peṟutal): 61–70
Chapter 8. The Possession of Love (அன்புடைமை aṉpuṭaimai): 71–80
Chapter 9. Cherishing Guests (விருந்தோம்பல் viruntōmpal): 81–90
Chapter 10. The Utterance of Pleasant Words (இனியவை கூறல் iṉiyavai kūṟal): 91–100
Chapter 11. The Knowledge of Benefits Conferred: Gratitude (செய்ந்நன்றி அறிதல் ceynnaṉṟi aṟital): 101–110
Chapter 12. Impartiality (நடுவு நிலைமை naṭuvu nilaimai): 111–120
Chapter 13. The Possession of Self-restraint (அடக்கமுடைமை aṭakkamuṭaimai): 121–130
Chapter 14. The Possession of Decorum (ஒழுக்கமுடைமை oḻukkamuṭaimai): 131–140
Chapter 15. Not Coveting Another's Wife (பிறனில் விழையாமை piṟaṉil viḻaiyāmai): 141–150
Chapter 16. The Possession of Patience, Forbearance (பொறையுடைமை poṟaiyuṭaimai): 151–160
Chapter 17. Not Envying (அழுக்காறாமை aḻukkāṟāmai): 161–170
Chapter 18. Not Coveting (வெஃகாமை veḵkāmai): 171–180
Chapter 19. Not Backbiting (புறங்கூறாமை puṟaṅkūṟāmai): 181–190
Chapter 20. The Not Speaking Profitless Words (பயனில சொல்லாமை payaṉila collāmai): 191–200
Chapter 21. Dread of Evil Deeds (தீவினையச்சம் tīviṉaiyaccam): 201–210
Chapter 22. The Knowledge of What Is Befitting a Man's Position (ஒப்புரவறிதல் oppuravaṟital): 211–220
Chapter 23. Giving (ஈகை īkai): 221–230
Chapter 24. Renown (புகழ் pukaḻ): 231–240
Chapter 25. The Possession of Benevolence (அருளுடைமை aruḷuṭaimai): 241–250
Chapter 26. The Renunciation of Flesh-Eating (புலான் மறுத்தல் pulāṉmaṟuttal): 251–260
Chapter 27. Penance (தவம் tavam): 261–270
Chapter 28. Inconsistent Conduct (கூடாவொழுக்கம் kūṭāvoḻukkam): 271–280
Chapter 29. The Absence of Fraud (கள்ளாமை kaḷḷāmai): 281–290
Chapter 30. Veracity (வாய்மை vāymai): 291–300
Chapter 31. The Not Being Angry (வெகுளாமை vekuḷāmai): 301–310
Chapter 32. Not Doing Evil (இன்னா செய்யாமை iṉṉāceyyāmai): 311–320
Chapter 33. Not Killing (கொல்லாமை kollāmai): 321–330
Chapter 34. Instability (நிலையாமை nilaiyāmai): 331–340
Chapter 35. Renunciation (துறவு tuṟavu): 341–350
Chapter 36. Knowledge of the True (மெய்யுணர்தல் meyyuṇartal): 351–360
Chapter 37. The Extirpation of Desire (அவாவறுத்தல் avāvaṟuttal): 361–370
Chapter 38. Fate (ஊழ் ūḻ): 371–380

Grouping of chapters

The Book of Aram has been subdivided variously by different scholars.{{sfn|Pillai, 1972|p=12–16}} In fact, the chapters in this book have been categorized in more varied order than the other two books of the Kural text.{{sfn|Pillai, 1972|p=12–16}}

Although the author did not group the chapters under any subdivisions as with the other two books of the Kural text,{{sfn|Pillai, 1972|p=12}}{{sfn|Zvelebil, 1973|p=158}} the Sangam poet Sirumedhaviyar first suggested grouping of the chapters under subdivisions in verse 20 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai.{{sfn|Sirumedhaviyar|pp=Verse 20}} Accordingly, he divided the Book of Aṟam into three Iyals, or divisions, namely, pāyiram (the first 4 chapters), aṟam (the next 33 chapters), and ūḻ (the final chapter).{{sfn|Jagannathan, 1963|pp=32–33}} Following this, the ten medieval commentators, who were the first to write commentaries about the Tirukkural, divided the Book of Aṟam variously between two and four portions, grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely.{{sfn|Kumaravelan, 2008|pp=4–17}}{{sfn|Aravindan, 1968|p=105}} For example, while Parimelalhagar divided Book One into two parts, namely, domestic virtue and ascetic virtue, besides keeping the first four chapters under "Introduction," other medieval commentators have divided Book One into four portions, namely, introduction, domestic virtue, ascetic virtue, and fate.{{sfn|Zvelebil, 1973|p=158}} Modern commentators such as V. O. Chidambaram Pillai have even gone up to six divisions.{{sfn|Kumaravelan, 2008|pp=4–17}}

The original grouping and numbering of the chapters, too, were changed considerably by the medieval commentators.{{sfn|Kumaravelan, 2008|pp=4–17}} For instance, chapters 10, 13, 17, 18, and 19 in the present-day ordering (which follows Parimelalhagar's ordering) under subsection "domestic virtue" are numbered chapters 26, 27, 30, 31, and 32, respectively, under subsection "ascetic virtue" in Manakkudavar's ordering. Similarly, the modern chapters 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33, appearing under subsection "ascetic virtue" appear as chapters 19, 20, 10, 16, 17, and 18, respectively, under subsection "domestic virtue" in Manakkudavar's ordering. However, being the earliest of all the available commentaries on the Tirukkural, Manakkudavar's commentary is believed to be the closest to the original Kural text as written by Valluvar.{{sfn|Aravindan, 1968|pp=346–347}}{{sfn|Raja, 2017|pp=5–10}}

Valluvar's position on aṟam or virtue

While religious scriptures generally consider aṟam as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.{{sfn|Sanjeevi, 1973|pp=xxiii–xxvii}} Unlike in Manusmriti, Valluvar holds that aṟam is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it.{{sfn|Valluvar|pp=Verse 37}}{{sfn|Visveswaran, 2016|pp=ix–xi}} For this reason, Valluvar keeps aṟam as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature.{{sfn| Velusamy and Faraday, 2017|p=55}}

Valluvar considered justice as a facet of aṟam. While ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."{{sfn| Sanjeevi, 1973|pp=xxiii–xxvii}}

The greatest of virtues or aṟam according to Valluvar is non-killing,{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4341–4342}} followed by veracity,{{sfn|Sethupillai, 1956|pp=34–36}} both of which are indicated in the same couplet (Kural 323),{{sfn|Valluvar|pp=Verse 323}} and the greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat-eating.{{sfn|Sethupillai, 1956|pp=34–36}}{{sfn|Sundaram, 1990|pp=7–16}} In the words of P. S. Sundaram, while "all other sins may be redeemed, but never ingratitude," Valluvar couldn't understand "how anyone could wish to fatten himself by feeding on the fat of others."{{sfn|Sundaram, 1990|pp=7–16}}

Influence

Of the three books of the Kural text, the Book of Aṟam remains the most translated one by scholars and writers.{{sfn|Sanjeevi, 1973|pp=}} Serving as a manual of precepts to exclusively teach dharma for millennia,{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}} the Book of Aṟam has influenced many of its readers to pursue the path of non-violence. This became more evident after the translation of the Kural into several European languages beginning in the early 18th century. For instance, Russian pacifist Leo Tolstoy was inspired by the concept of ahimsa and non-killing found in the Book of Aṟam after reading a German translation of the Kural, which bolstered his thoughts on pacifism.{{sfn|Rajaram, 2009|pp=xviii–xxi}} Tolstoy, in turn, instilled the virtue of non-violence in Mohandas Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi sought his advice on the struggle for Indian Independence.{{sfn|Parel, 2002|pp=96–112}} Tolstoy referred to the Kural as 'the Hindu Kural' in his correspondence, citing six couplets from the chapter on non-violence.{{sfn|Tolstoy, 1908|p=}} Taking this advice, Gandhi then took to studying the Kural while in prison,{{sfn|Lal, 1992|pp=4333–4334}} later employing various non-violent movements to liberate the nation.{{sfn|Rajaram, 2009|pp=xviii–xxi}}{{sfn| Velusamy and Faraday, 2017|p=61}} The South Indian saint Ramalinga Swamigal was inspired by the Kural at a young age and spent his whole life promoting compassion and non-violence, emphasizing on a meatless way of life.{{sfn|Subbaraman, 2015|pp=39–42}}{{sfn|Sivagnanam, 1974|p=96}}

Notes

a. {{Note label|A|a|none}} The Kural insists on strict "moral vegetarianism", the doctrine that humans are morally obligated to refrain from eating meat or harming sentient beings,{{sfn|Parimelalhagar, 2009|pp=256–266, 314–336}} known as "veganism" since the 20th century, as described by Mylan Engel in his work "The Immorality of Eating Meat" (2000).{{sfn|Engel, 2000|pp=856–889}} The concept of ahimsa or இன்னா செய்யாமை, which remains the moral foundation of veganism,{{sfn|Dinshah, 2010}} is described in the chapter on non-violence (Chapter 32).{{sfn|Parimelalhagar, 2009|pp=314–324}}

Citations

References

Primary sources (Tamil)

Alathur Kilar, Kḻuvāi Illai!, புறநானூறு [Puranānuru] (Verse 34), See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
{{cite wikisource |author=Avvaiyar |title=ta:திருவள்ளுவமாலை |others=Tirutthanigai Saravana Perumal Iyer (commentator)}}
Ilango Adigal, சிலப்பதிகாரம் [Silappathigāram], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
Kambar, கம்பராமாயணம் [Kambarāmāyanam], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
{{cite book |author= Manakkudavar |title= திருக்குறள் மணக்குடவர் உரை. C. Meiyyappan (Ed.) |url= |year= 2003 |edition= |publisher=Manivasagar Padhippagam. 370 pp. | location= Chennai |isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Manakkudavar, 2003}}}}
{{cite book |author= Parimelalhagar |title= திருக்குறள் மூலமும் பரிமேலழகர் உரையும். Compiled by V. M. Gopalakrishnamachariyar |url= |year= 2009 |edition= |publisher=Uma Padhippagam. 1456 pp. | location= Chennai |isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Parimelalhagar, 2009}}}}
Seethalai Sāthanār, மணிமேகலை [Manimekalai], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
Sekkiḻar, பெரிய‌ புராண‌ம் [Periya Puranam], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
{{cite wikisource |author=Valluvar |title=ta:திருக்குறள் |translator=George Uglow Pope}} See original text in Project Madurai.

Secondary sources

{{cite book |author= M. V. Aravindan |title= உரையாசிரியர்கள் [Commentators] |url= |year= 1968 |edition= |publisher=Manivasagar Padhippagam | location= Chennai |isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Aravindan, 1968}} }}
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{{cite book |author= Mylan Engel, Jr. |title= "The Immorality of Eating Meat," in The Moral Life: An Introductory Reader in Ethics and Literature, (Louis P. Pojman, ed.) |url= |year= 2000 |edition= |publisher= Oxford University Press | location= New York |isbn = |page= 856–889|ref={{sfnRef|Engel, 2000}} }}
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{{cite book |author= C. Dhandapani Desigar|title=திருக்குறள் அழகும் அமைப்பும் [Tirukkural: Beauty and Structure] |url= |year= 1969 |edition= |publisher=Tamil Valarcchi Iyakkam | location=Chennai |language=Tamil| isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Desigar, 1969}} }}
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{{cite book |author= M. N. Ramasubramania Raja (Ed.) |title=திருக்குறள் உரைக்களஞ்சிம் [Compendium of Thirukkural Commentaries] |url= |year= 2017 |edition=1st |publisher=Kottravai | location=Chennai |language=Tamil| isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Raja, 2017}} }}
{{cite book |author= N. Sanjeevi |title= First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers |url= |year= 1973 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Madras | location=Chennai |isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Sanjeevi, 1973}} }}
{{cite book |author= R. P. Sethupillai |title=திருவள்ளுவர் நூல்நயம் [Beauty of Thiruvalluvar's work]|year= 1956 |edition= 10th|publisher=Kazhaga Veliyeedu|series= | volume= |location= Chennai|language=Tamil| url = | isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Sethupillai, 1956}} }}
{{cite book |author= M. Shanmukham Pillai |title= திருக்குறள் அமைப்பும் முறையும் [The structure and method of Tirukkural] |url= |year= 1972 |edition= 1|publisher=University of Madras | location= Chennai |isbn = |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Pillai, 1972}}}}
{{cite book | last = | first = | author-link = | title = Thirukkural: Couplets with English Transliteration and Meaning | publisher = Shree Shenbaga Pathippagam | series = | volume = | edition = 1 | date = 2012 | location = Chennai | pages = vii–xvi | language = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = |ref={{sfnRef|SSP, 2012}} }}
{{cite book |author= Steven Rosen|title=Essential Hinduism (Chapter 3) |url= |year= 2006 |edition= |publisher=Praeger | location= |language=| isbn = 978-0-275-99006-0|page= |ref={{sfnRef|Rosen, 2006}} }}
{{cite book |author=N. V. Subbaraman |title= வள்ளுவம் வாழ்ந்த வள்ளலார் [Vallalar: Living the Valluvam Way] |url= |year= 2015 |publisher=Unique Media Integrators | location=Chennai |isbn = 978-93-83051-95-3 |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Subbaraman, 2015}} }}
{{cite book |author=M. P. Sivagnanam |title=திருக்குறளிலே கலைபற்றிக் கூறாததேன்? [Why the Kural did not mention art?] |url= |year=1974 |publisher=Poonkodi Padhippagam | location=Chennai |ref={{sfnRef|Sivagnanam, 1974}}}}
{{cite book |author=P. S. Sundaram |title=Tiruvalluvar Kural |url= |year=1990 |edition=1st|publisher=Penguin Books |location=Gurgaon|isbn=978-01-44000-09-8 |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Sundaram, 1990}} }}
{{cite web | url = http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733/ | title = A Letter to A Hindu: The Subjection of India-Its Cause and Cure | last = Tolstoy | first = Leo | date = 14 December 1908 | website = The Literature Network | publisher = The Literature Network | access-date = 12 February 2012 | quote = THE HINDU KURAL|ref={{sfnRef|Tolstoy, 1908}}}}
{{cite journal | last = Van Buitenen | first = J. A. B. | author-link = | title = Dharma and Moksa | journal = Philosophy East and West | volume = 7 | issue = 1/2 (April–July) | pages = 36 | date = 1957 | language = | url = | jstor = | issn = | doi = | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | access-date = |ref={{sfnRef|Van Buitenen, 1957}} }}
{{cite book |author=Jean Varenne and Coltman Derek |title=Yoga and the Hindu Tradition |url= |year=1977 |edition=|publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago|isbn= 978-0-226-85116-7|page= |ref={{sfnRef|Varenne and Derek, 1977}} }}
{{cite book |author= N. Velusamy and Moses Michael Faraday (Eds.) |title= Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India? |url= |year=February 2017 |publisher= Unique Media Integrators |isbn= 978-93-85471-70-4 |page=152 |ref={{sfnRef|Velusamy and Faraday, 2017}} }}
{{cite book |author= H. V. Visveswaran |title= தமிழனின் தத்துவம் திருக்குறள் அறம் [Tamilan's Philosophy is Tirukkural Virtue] |url= |year= 2016 |edition= 1|publisher= Notion Press | location= Chennai |isbn = 978-93-86073-74-7|page= |ref={{sfnRef|Visveswaran, 2016}} }}
{{cite journal | last = Widgery | first = Alban G. | author-link = | title = The Principles of Hindu Ethics | journal = International Journal of Ethics | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 232–245 | date = January 1930 | language = | url = | jstor = | issn = | doi = | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | access-date = |ref={{sfnRef|Widgery, 1930}}}}
{{cite book |author=Kamil Zvelebil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155 |accessdate=7 March 2018|year=1973 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-03591-1 |page= |ref={{sfnRef|Zvelebil, 1973}} }}

1 : Tirukkural

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