“Warsaw Ghetto Uprising”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ({{lang-yi|אױפֿשטאַנד אין װאַרשעװער געטאָ}}; {{lang-pl|powstanie w getcie warszawskim}}; {{lang-de|Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto}}) was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's final effort to transport the remaining ghetto population to Majdanek and Treblinka concentration camps. After the Grossaktion Warsaw of summer 1942, in which more than a quarter of a million Jews were deported from the ghetto to Treblinka and murdered, the remaining Jews began to build bunkers and smuggle weapons and explosives into the ghetto. The left-wing Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) and right-wing Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) formed and began to train. However, only the ŻZW received logistical support from the similarly right-leaning Polish Home Army. A small resistance effort to another roundup in January 1943 was partially successful and spurred the Polish groups to support the Jews in earnest.

The uprising started on 19 April when the ghetto refused to surrender to the police commander SS-Brigadeführer Jürgen Stroop, who then ordered the burning of the ghetto, block by block, ending on 16 May. A total of 13,000 Jews died, about half of them burnt alive or suffocated. German casualties were probably less than 150, with Stroop reporting only 110 casualties [16 killed + 1 dead/93 wounded]. Nevertheless, it was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II. The Jews knew that the uprising was doomed and their survival was unlikely. Marek Edelman, the only surviving ŻOB commander, said that the motivation for fighting was "to pick the time and place of our deaths". According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the uprising was "one of the most significant occurrences in the history of the Jewish people".^[2]

Background

In 1939, German authorities began to concentrate Poland's population of over three million Jews into a number of extremely crowded ghettos located in large Polish cities. The largest of these, the Warsaw Ghetto, concentrated approximately 300,000–400,000 people into a densely packed, 3.3 km² central area of Warsaw. Thousands of Jews died due to rampant disease and starvation under SS-und-Polizeiführer Odilo Globocnik and SS-Standartenführer Ludwig Hahn, even before the mass deportations from the ghetto to the Treblinka extermination camp began.

The SS conducted many of the deportations during the operation code-named Grossaktion Warschau, between 23 July and 21 September 1942. Just before the operation began, the German "Resettlement Commissioner" SS-Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle called a meeting of the Ghetto Jewish Council Judenrat and informed its leader, Adam Czerniaków, that he would require 7,000 Jews a day^[3] for the "resettlement to the East".^[5]^[6] Czerniaków committed suicide once he became aware of the true goal of the "resettlement" plan. Approximately 254,000–300,000 ghetto residents met their deaths at Treblinka during the two-month-long operation. The Grossaktion was directed by SS-Oberführer Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg, the SS and police commander of the Warsaw area since 1941.^[7] He was relieved of duty by SS-und-Polizeiführer Jürgen Stroop, sent to Warsaw by Heinrich Himmler on 17 April 1943.^[8]^[9] Stroop took over from von Sammern-Frankenegg following the failure of the latter to pacify the ghetto resistance.^[10]

When the deportations first began, members of the Jewish resistance movement met and decided not to fight the SS directives, believing that the Jews were being sent to labour camps and not to their deaths. By the end of 1942, ghetto inhabitants learned that the deportations were part of an extermination process. Many of the remaining Jews decided to revolt.^[4] The first armed resistance in the ghetto occurred in January 1943.^[5] On 19 April 1943, Passover eve, the Germans entered the ghetto. The remaining Jews knew that the Germans would murder them and they decided to resist to the last.^[6] While the uprising was underway, the Bermuda Conference was held from 19–29 April 1943 to discuss the Jewish refugee problem.^[7] Discussions included the question of Jewish refugees who had been liberated by Allied forces and those who still remained within German-occupied Europe.^[8]^[9]

The uprising

January revolt

On 18 January 1943, the Germans began their second deportation of the Jews, which led to the first instance of armed insurgency within the ghetto. While Jewish families hid in their so-called "bunkers", fighters of the ŻZW, joined by elements of the ŻOB, resisted, engaging the Germans in direct clashes.^[17] Though the ŻZW and ŻOB suffered heavy losses (including some of their leaders), the Germans also took casualties, and the deportation was halted within a few days. Only 5,000 Jews were removed, instead of the 8,000 planned by Globocnik. Hundreds of people in the Warsaw Ghetto were ready to fight, adults and children, sparsely armed with handguns, gasoline bottles, and a few other weapons that had been smuggled into the ghetto by resistance fighters.^[1] Most of the Jewish fighters did not view their actions as an effective measure by which to save themselves, but rather as a battle for the honour of the Jewish people, and a protest against the world's silence.^[6]

Preparations

Two resistance organizations, the ŻZW and ŻOB, took control of the ghetto. They built dozens of fighting posts and executed a number of Nazi collaborators, including Jewish Ghetto Police officers, members of the fake (German-sponsored and controlled) resistance organization Żagiew, as well as Gestapo and Abwehr agents (such as Judenrat member Dr Alfred Nossig, executed on 22 February 1943).^[20] The ŻOB established a prison to hold and execute traitors and collaborators.^[21] Józef Szeryński, former head of the Jewish Ghetto Police, committed suicide.^[22]

Main revolt

On 19 April 1943, on the eve of Passover, the police and SS auxiliary forces entered the ghetto. They were planning to complete the deportation action within three days, but were ambushed by Jewish insurgents firing and tossing Molotov cocktails and hand grenades from alleyways, sewers, and windows. The Germans suffered 59 casualties and their advance bogged down. Two of their combat vehicles (an armed conversion of a French-made Lorraine 37L light armored vehicle and an armored car) were set on fire by the insurgents's petrol bombs.^[24] Following von Sammern-Frankenegg's failure to contain the revolt, he lost his post as the SS and police commander of Warsaw. He was replaced by SS-Brigadeführer Jürgen Stroop, who rejected von Sammern-Frankenegg's proposal to call in bomber aircraft from Kraków and proceeded to lead a better-organized and reinforced ground attack.

The longest-lasting defense of a position took place around the ŻZW stronghold at Muranowski Square, where the ŻZW chief leader, Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum, was killed in combat. On the afternoon of 19 April, a symbolic event took place when two boys climbed up on the roof of a building on the square and raised two flags, the red-and-white Polish flag and the blue-and-white banner of the ŻZW. These flags remained there, highly visible from the Warsaw streets, for four days. After the war, Stroop recalled:

During this fight on 22 April, SS officer Hans Dehmke was killed when gunfire detonated a hand grenade he was holding.^[11] When Stroop's ultimatum to surrender was rejected by the defenders, his forces resorted to systematically burning houses block by block using flamethrowers and fire bottles, and blowing up basements and sewers. "We were beaten by the flames, not the Germans," Edelman said in 2007.^[27] In 2003, he recalled: "The sea of flames flooded houses and courtyards. ... There was no air, only black, choking smoke and heavy burning heat radiating from the red-hot walls, from the glowing stone stairs."^[28] The "bunker wars" lasted an entire month, during which German progress was slowed.^[12]

While the battle continued inside the ghetto, Polish resistance groups AK and GL engaged the Germans between 19 and 23 April at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, firing at German sentries and positions. In one attack, three units of the AK under the command of Captain Józef Pszenny ("Chwacki") joined up in a failed attempt to breach the ghetto walls with explosives.^[30] Eventually, the ŻZW lost all of its commanders and, on 29 April, the remaining fighters from the organization escaped the ghetto through the Muranowski tunnel and relocated to the Michalin forest. This event marked the end of significant fighting.

At this point, organized defense collapsed. Surviving fighters and thousands of remaining Jewish civilians took cover in the sewer system and in the many dugout hiding places hidden among the ruins of the ghetto, referred to as "bunkers" by Germans and Jews alike. The Germans used dogs to look for such hideouts, then usually dropped smoke bombs down to force people out. Sometimes they flooded these so-called bunkers or destroyed them with explosives. On occasions, shootouts occurred. A number of captured fighters—especially the women—lobbed hidden grenades or fired concealed handguns after surrendering. There were also clashes between small groups of insurgents and German patrols at night.

On 8 May, the Germans discovered a large dugout located at Miła 18 Street, which served as ŻOB's main command post. Most of the organization's remaining leadership and dozens of others committed mass suicide by ingesting cyanide, including the chief commander of ŻOB, Mordechaj Anielewicz. His deputy Marek Edelman escaped the ghetto through the sewers with a handful of comrades two days later.

On 10 May, a Bundist member of the Polish government in exile, Szmul Zygielbojm, committed suicide in London to protest the lack of reaction from the Allied governments. In his farewell note, he wrote:

The suppression of the uprising officially ended on 16 May 1943, when Stroop personally pushed a detonator button to demolish the Great Synagogue of Warsaw. Stroop later recalled:

Besides claiming an estimated 56,065 Jews accounted for (although his own figures showed the number to be 57,065) and noting that "The number of destroyed dug-outs amounts to 631." in his official report 24 May 1943, Stroop listed the following as captured booty:^[16]

Regarding the booty of arms, it must be taken into consideration that the arms themselves could in most cases not be captured, as the bandits and Jews would, before being arrested, throw them into hiding places or holes which could not be ascertained or discovered. The smoking out of the dug-out by our men, also often made the search for arms impossible. As the dug-outs had to be blown up at once, a search later on was out of the question.

The captured hand grenades, ammunition, and incendiary bottles were at once reused by us against the bandits. Further booty:

4.4 million Zloty; furthermore about 5 to 6 million Zloty not yet counted, a great amount of foreign currency, e.g. $14,300 in paper and $9,200 in gold, moreover valuables (rings, chains, watches, etc.) in great quantities.

Apart from 8 buildings (Police Barracks, hospital, and accommodations for housing working-parties) the former Ghetto is completely destroyed. Only the dividing walls are left standing where no explosions were carried out. But the ruins still contain a vast amount of stones and scrap material which could be used.}}

Sporadic resistance continued and the last skirmish took place on 5 June 1943 between Germans and a holdout group of armed Jews without connections to the resistance organizations.

Casualties

13,000 Jews were killed in the ghetto during the uprising (some 6,000 among them were burnt alive or died from smoke inhalation). Of the remaining 50,000 residents, almost all were captured and shipped to Majdanek and Treblinka.

Jürgen Stroop's internal SS daily report for Friedrich Krüger, written on 16 May 1943, stated:

According to the casualty lists in Stroop's report, German forces suffered a total of 110 casualties – 17 dead (of whom 16 were killed in action) and 93 injured – of whom 101 are listed by name, including over 60 members of the Waffen-SS. These figures did not include Jewish collaborators, but did include the "Trawniki men" and Polish police under his command. The real number of German losses, however, may be well higher (the Germans suffered about 300 casualties by Edelman's estimate). For propaganda purposes, the official announcement claimed the German casualties to be only a few wounded, while propaganda bulletins of the Polish Underground State announced that hundreds of occupiers had been killed in the fighting.

German daily losses of killed/wounded and the official figures for killed or captured Jews and "bandits", according to the Stroop report: {{Clear}}

According to Raul Hilberg, "the number cited by Stroop (16 dead, 85 wounded) cannot be rejected out of hand, but it is likely that his list was neither complete, free of errors, nor indicative of the German losses throughout the entire period of resistance, until the absolute liquidation of Jewish life in the ghetto. All the same, the German casualty figures cited by the various Jewish sources are probably highly exaggerated."^[37] Other historians such as Raul Hilberg and French L. MacLean endorse the accuracy of official German casualty figures.^[38]^[39] On the other hand, Stroop report vastly exaggerated actual losses (and strength) of the resistance.{{clarify|Hilberg can't simultaneously endorse both positions|date=July 2018}}

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II.^[40]

Aftermath

After the uprising was over, most of the incinerated houses were razed, and the Warsaw concentration camp complex was established in their place. Thousands of people died in the camp or were executed in the ruins of the ghetto. At the same time, the SS were hunting down the remaining Jews still hiding in the ruins. On 19 April 1943, the first day of the most significant period of the resistance, 7,000 Jews were transported from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka extermination camp,^[41] where, purportedly, they developed again into resistance groups, and then helped to plan and execute the revolt and mass escape of 2 August 1943. From May 1943 to August 1944, Executions in the ruins of the ghetto were carried out by:^[17]

Both open and secret executions carried out in Warsaw were repeatedly led by SS-Obersturmführer Norbert Bergh-Trips, SS-Haupturmführer Paul Werner and SS-Obersturmführer Walter Witossek. The latter often presided over the police "trio" signing mass death sentences for Polish political prisoners, which were later pronounced by the ad hoc court of the security police^[19]^[20] In October 1943, Bürkl was tried and condemned to death in absentia by the Polish Resistance's Special Courts, and shot dead by the AK in Warsaw, a part of Operation Heads targeting notorious SS officers. That same month, von Sammern-Frankenegg was killed by Yugoslav Partisans in an ambush in Croatia. Himmler, Globocnik and Krüger all committed suicide at the end of the war in Europe in May 1945. The General Government Governor of Warsaw at the time of the Uprising, Dr. Ludwig Fischer, was tried and executed in 1947. Stroop was captured by Americans in Germany, convicted of war crimes in two different trials (U.S. military and Polish) and executed by hanging in Poland in 1952 along with Warsaw Ghetto SS administrator Franz Konrad. Stroop's aide, Erich Steidtmann, was exonerated for "minimal involvement"; he died in 2010 while under investigation for war crimes. Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle who helped carry out the July 1942 Grossaktion Warsaw committed suicide after being arrested in 1962. Walter Bellwidt, who commanded a Waffen-SS battalion among Stroop forces, died on 13 October 1965. Hahn went into hiding until 1975, when he was apprehended and sentenced to life for crimes against humanity; he served eight years and died in 1986. SS Oberführer Arpad Wigand who served with von Sammern-Frankenberg as SS and Police Leader in Warsaw from 4 August 1941 to 23 April 1943 was tried for war crimes in Hamburg Germany in 1981 and sentenced to 12.5 years in prison; died 26 July 1983. Walter Reder reportedly served in the SS Panzer Grenadier Training Battalion III; he served a jail sentence in Italy from 1951 to 1985 for war crimes committed in 1944 in Italy, and died in 1991. Josef Blösche was tried for war crimes and executed in 1969. Heinrich Klaustermeyer was tried for war crimes in 1965 and died in 1976.

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 took place over a year before the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. The ghetto had been totally destroyed by the time of the general uprising in the city, which was part of the Operation Tempest, a nationwide insurrection plan. During the Warsaw Uprising, the Polish Home Army's Battalion Zośka was able to rescue 380 Jewish prisoners (mostly foreign) held in the concentration camp "Gęsiówka" set up by the Germans in an area adjacent to the ruins of former ghetto. These prisoners had been brought from Auschwitz and forced to clear the remains of the ghetto.^[21] A few small groups of ghetto residents also managed to survive in the undetected "bunkers" and to eventually reach the "Aryan side".^[22] In all, several hundred survivors from the first uprising took part in the later uprising (mostly in non-combat roles such as logistics and maintenance, due to their physical state and general shortage of arms), joining the ranks of the Polish Home Army and the Armia Ludowa. According to Samuel Krakowski from the Jewish Historical Institute, "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising had a real influence ... in encouraging the activity of the Polish underground."^[48]

A number of survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, known as the "Ghetto Fighters", went on to found the kibbutz Lohamei HaGeta'ot (literally: "Ghetto Fighters'"), which is located north of Acre, Israel. The founding members of the kibbutz include Yitzhak Zuckerman (Icchak Cukierman), who represented the ŻOB on the 'Aryan' side, and his wife Zivia Lubetkin, who commanded a fighting unit. In 1984, members of the kibbutz published Daphei Edut ("Testimonies of Survival"), four volumes of personal testimonies from 96 kibbutz members. The settlement features a museum and archives dedicated to remembering the Holocaust. Yad Mordechai, a kibbutz just north of the Gaza Strip, was named after Mordechaj Anielewicz. In 2008, Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Gabi Ashkenazi led a group of Israeli officials to the site of the uprising and spoke about the event's "importance for IDF combat soldiers".^[49]

In 1968, the 25th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Zuckerman was asked what military lessons could be learned from the uprising. He replied:

On 7 December 1970, West German Chancellor Willy Brandt spontaneously knelt while visiting the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes memorial in the People's Republic of Poland. At the time, the action surprised many and was the focus of controversy, but it has since been credited with helping improve relations between the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries.

Many people from the United States and Israel came for the 1983 commemoration.^[23]

The last surviving Jewish resistance fighter, Simcha Rotem, passed away in Jerusalem on 22 December 2018, at age 94.^[24]^[25]

Opposing forces

Jewish

Two Jewish underground organisations fought in the Warsaw Uprising: the left wing Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ŻOB) founded in July 1942 by Zionist Jewish youth groups within the Warsaw Ghetto;^[26] and the right wing Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW), or Jewish Military Union, a national organization founded in 1939 by former Polish military officers of Jewish background which had strong ties to the Polish Home Army, and cells in almost every major town across Poland.^[27]^[28] However both organisations were officially incorporated into the Polish Home Army and its command structure in exchange for weapons and training.^[29]

The right-wing faction ŻZW, which was founded by former Polish officers, was larger, more established and had closer ties with the Polish resistance, making it better equipped.^[63]^[30] Zimmerman describes the arms supplies for the uprising as "limited but real".^[31] Specifically, Jewish fighters of the ŻZW received from the Polish Home Army: 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades for the uprising.^[32] During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, ŻZW is reported to have had about 400 well-armed fighters grouped in 11 units, with 4 units including fighters from the Polish Home Army. Due to the ŻZW's anti-socialist stand and close ties with the Polish Home Army (which was subsequently outlawed by the Soviets), the Soviets suppressed publication of books and articles on ŻZW after the war and downplayed its role in the uprising, in favour of the more socialist ŻOB.

More weapons were supplied throughout the uprising, and some were captured from the Germans. Some weapons were handmade by the resistance; sometimes such weapons worked, other times they jammed repeatedly.

Shortly before the uprising, Polish-Jewish historian Emanuel Ringelblum (who managed to escape from the Warsaw Ghetto, but was later discovered and executed in 1944) visited a ŻZW armoury hidden in the basement at 7 Muranowska Street. In his notes, which form part of Oneg Shabbat archives, he reported:

Due to the nature of the conflict and that it took place within the confines of German-guarded Warsaw Ghetto, the role of the Polish Home Army was primarily one of ancillary support; namely, the provision of arms, ammunition and training.^[63]^[70] Although the Home Army's stocks were meager, and general provision of arms limited,^[63] the right-wing ŻZW received significant quantities of armaments, including some heavy and light machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, pistols and grenades.^[35]

Polish

The Polish Home Army also disseminated information and appeals to help the Jews in the ghetto, both in Poland and by way of radio transmissions to the Allies, which fell largely on deaf ears.^[73] During the uprising, the Polish Resistance units from the Polish Home Army and the communist Gwardia Ludowa^[74] attacked German units near the ghetto walls and attempted to smuggle weapons, ammunition, supplies, and instructions into the ghetto. Their failure to break through German defences limited supplies in the ghetto which was otherwise cut off from the outside world by a German-ordered blockade.^[30]

The command of the Home Army ordered to Kedyw carried a series of actions around the walls against the German units under code name Ghetto Action.^[37]^[38] Between 19 and 23 April 1943, the Polish resistance engaged the Germans at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, shooting at German sentries and positions and in one case attempting to blow up a gate.^[38]^[39] The Polish Home Army fought in 4 units with the ŻZW in Muranowska Street having climbed into the ghetto via secret tunnels dug by the ŻZW. A National Security Corps unit commanded by Henryk Iwański ("Bystry") reportedly fought inside the ghetto along with ŻZW and subsequently both groups retreated together (including 34 Jewish fighters) to the so-called Aryan side.^[81] Several ŻOB commanders and fighters also later escaped through the tunnels with assistance from the Poles and joined the Polish underground (Home Army).^[73]

On the other hand, despite Polish fighters joining the struggle, some survivors criticized gentile Poles for not providing sufficient support. In her book On Both Sides of the Wall, Vladka Meed, who was a member of the left-wing ŻOB, devoted a chapter to the insufficient support from the Polish resistance.^[86] Indeed, records confirm that the leftist ŻOB received less weaponry and no fighters from the Polish Home Army, unlike the right-wing ŻZW with whom the Home Army had close ties and ideological similarities.^[31]^[30]^[58]

German

Ultimately, the efforts of the Jewish resistance fighters proved insufficient against the German occupation system. According to Hanna Krall, the German task force dispatched to put down the revolt and complete the deportation action numbered 2,090 men armed with a number of minethrowers and other light and medium artillery pieces, several armored vehicles, and more than 200 machine and submachine guns.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61] Its backbone consisted of 821 Waffen-SS paramilitary soldiers from five SS Panzergrenadier reserve and training battalions and one SS cavalry reserve and training battalion. The other forces were drawn from the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) order police (battalions from the 22nd and 23rd regiments), Warsaw personnel of the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) intelligence service, one battalion each from two Wehrmacht (Heer) railroad combat engineers regiments, a Wehrmacht battery of anti-aircraft artillery, a detachment of multinational (commonly but inaccurately referred to by the Germans and Jews alike as "Ukrainians"^[94]) ex-Soviet POW "Trawniki-Männer" auxiliary camp guards trained by the SS-Totenkopfverbände at Trawniki concentration camp, and technical emergency corps. Several Gestapo jailers from the nearby political prison Pawiak, led by Franz Bürkl, volunteered to join the "hunt" for the Jews. A force of 363 officers from the Polish Police of the General Government (so-called Blue Police) was ordered by the Germans to cordon the walls of the ghetto. Warsaw fire department personnel were also forced to help in the operation.^[35] Jewish policemen were used in the first phase of the ghetto's liquidation and subsequently summarily executed by the Gestapo.^[24] Stroop later remarked:^[10]

By his own words, Stroop reported that after he took command on 19 April 1943 the forces at his disposal totaled 31 officers and 1,262 men:^[45]

Stroop's report listed ultimate forces at his disposal as 36 officers and 2,054 men:^[47]

His casualty^[48] lists also include members of four other Waffen-SS training and reserve units (1st SS Panzer Grenadier; 2nd SS Panzer Grenadier; 4th SS Panzer Grenadier; 5th SS Panzer Grenadier Training Battalions). Polish police came from the Kommissariarts 1st, 7th and 8th. There is also evidence that German Police of the SSPF of Lubin took part in the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto Jews.^[49] as did the I Battalion of the 17th SS Police Regiment^[50]

Controversy

Already during the war the influence and the importance of the right leaning Jewish underground organisation Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ZZW) or Jewish Military Union was being downgraded. The surviving commanders of the leftist ŻOB either did not mention the ŻZW's fight in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in their writings at all,^[51] or belittled its importance.^[52] Also the war-time Soviet propaganda did only briefly mention the fighters as they collided with its aims of presenting the Soviet Union as the only defender of the European Jewry.^[53] In addition, except for David Wdowiński none of the high-ranking commanders of the ŻZW survived the war to tell their part of the story and it was not until 1963 that Wdowiński's memoirs^[30] were published.

This led to a number of myths concerning both the ŻZW and the Uprising being commonly repeated in many modern publications.^[54] This was even strengthened by the post-war propaganda of the Polish communists, who openly underlined the value of the leftist ŻOB, while suppressing all publications on the Polish Home Army-backed ŻZW.^[51]

In recent years, new research by historians Dariusz Libionka (Poland) and Laurence Weinbaum (Israel) on the ŻZW has called into question the validity of what has been written on the Revisionist Zionist underground that fought in the ghetto. Their monograph (Bohaterowie, hochsztaplerzy, opisywacze) cast new light on some of the Polish and Jewish accounts retold by those who wrote about the revolt. Over the years these testimonies found their way into many secondary sources – both popular and scholarly works by other authors – as well as reference books. The research by Libionka and Weinbaum attempted to deconstruct and discredit the testimony of Henryk Iwański and two others who claimed to have fought in the ranks of the organization or aided it.^[113] Libionka and Weinbaum maintain that Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum, who is often credited with having played a commanding role in the ŻZW, and after whom a square was named in Warsaw, was in all likelihood an entirely fictitious figure, a product of fałszywka (political forgery).^[55]^[56]

Nevertheless, the stories of Apfelbaum and Iwański as heroic combatants of the ghetto continue to be the focus of commemorations.^[57] In Israel, on the 70th anniversary of the uprising, a new edition of the 1963 book on the ŻZW written by Chaim Lazar-Litai was published, and retold the story of Iwański's and Apfelbaum's commanding role in the ŻZW. The retired Israeli politician Moshe Arens, who has also written widely on the ŻZW and the Warsaw Ghetto, contributed a foreword to the new edition.^[58]

In popular culture

The uprising is the subject of numerous works, in multiple media, such as Aleksander Ford's film Border Street (1948),^[59] John Hersey's novel The Wall (1950), Leon Uris' novel Mila 18 (1961), Jack P. Eisner's autobiography The Survivor (1980),^[60] Andrzej Wajda's films A Generation (1955), Samson (1961), and Holy Week (1995),^[61] and

It was also portrayed in Marvin J. Chomsky's NBC miniseries Holocaust (1978) and Roman Polanski's film The Pianist (2002) Based on 1946 (reprinted 1999) Warsaw Ghetto Survivor memoir The Pianist (memoir) by Władysław Szpilman. The revolt was briefly featured in the fantasy film Highlander (1986), as well as in the novel Highlander: Zealot (1997) and

the video game Velvet Assassin (2009). Joe Kubert's graphic novel Yossel imagines the conflict.

Songs about the uprising include Hirsh Glick's "Zog Nit Keynmol" (written in 1943), Johnny Clegg's "Warsaw 1943", and

The photograph of a boy surrendering outside a bunker became one of the best-known photographs of World War II and the Holocaust,{{efn|

See also

Notes

1. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.rp.pl/artykul/122686.html |title=Zapomniani żołnierze ŻZW |work=Rzeczpospolita |date=2008-04-18 |language=pl |accessdate=2012-11-07}}
2. ^{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Freilich|last2=Dean|first2=Martin|first1=Miri|translator-last=Fishman|translator-first=Samuel|entry=Warsaw|location=Bloomington|series=Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 |volume=2|title=Ghettos in German-Occupied Eastern Europe|editor1-last=Geoffrey P.|editor1-first=Megargee|editor1-link=Geoffrey P. Megargee|editor2-last=Dean|editor2-first=Martin|editor3-first=Mel|editor3-last=Hecker|date=2012|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |isbn=978-0-253-00202-0 |language=en |ref=harv|p=459}}
3. ^Warsaw Ghetto Diaries: Hillel Seidman, pg. 58
4. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005188 |title=Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |accessdate=18 May 2014}}
5. ^Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: The First Armed Resistance in the Ghetto An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
6. ^¹Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: Fighters in the Warsaw Ghetto An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
7. ^"United States Department of State / Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1943. General (1943)", "Bermuda Conference to consider the refugee problem, April 19–28, 1943, and the implementation of certain of the conference recommendations", s. 134–249.
8. ^Fabrizio Calvi, "Pacte avec le diable, les États-Unis, la Shoah et les nazis", Albin Michel, 2005 {{ISBN|9782226155931}}
9. ^The Allies' Refugee Conference—A "Cruel Mockery" by Dr. Rafael Medoff {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040513133343/http://www.wymaninstitute.org/articles/2003-04-bermuda.php |date=13 May 2004 }}
10. ^[https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/museum_photos/02/08.asp]
11. ^Stroop Report 22 April 1943. PDF file, direct download.
12. ^Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: In the Bunkers During the Uprising An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
13. ^Moczarski (1981), pages 148–149.
14. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Bund.html |title=The Last Letter from the Bund Representative with the Polish National Council in Exile |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=2012-11-07}}
15. ^Moczarski (1981), page 164.
16. ^The Stroop report pp. 77–78
17. ^Bogusław Kopka: Konzentrationslager Warschau... op.cit, p. 26, 60, 62.
18. ^Bundtke's Battalion stayed in the former ghetto and worked on its pacification after the official suppression of the uprising.
19. ^Władysław Bartoszewski: Warszawski pierścień śmierci... op.cit., p. 431.
20. ^Regina Domańska: Pawiak... op.cit, p. 417.
21. ^Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – Clearing the Remains of the Ghetto. An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
22. ^Voices From the Inferno: After the Uprising: Life Among the Ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto. An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
23. ^{{cite book |last1=Krajewski |first1=Stanisław |authorlink=Stanisław Krajewski |title=Poland and the Jews: reflections of a Polish Polish Jew |date=2005 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Austeria |location=kow |isbn=8389129221 |page=151}}
24. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5431459,00.html|title=Warsaw ghetto uprising’s last fighter passes away at age 94|publisher=Ynetnews|date=22 December 2018|accessdate=23 December 2018}}
25. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.dw.com/en/last-warsaw-ghetto-uprising-fighter-dies/a-46845325|title=Last Warsaw Ghetto Uprising fighter dies|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=23 December 2018|accessdate=23 December 2018}}
26. ^Call to Armed Self-Defense, from Ha-Shomer Ha-Zair newspaper in the Warsaw Underground Jutrznia ("Dawn"), March 28, 1942.
27. ^Moshe Arens (2005). "The Jewish Military Organization (ŻZW) in the Warsaw Ghetto". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 19 (2)
28. ^¹Maciej Kledzik (October 2002). "ŻZW; Appelbaum w cieniu Anielewicza". Rzeczpospolita (in Polish). 10 (12). 2002-10-11. Retrieved 2006-05-09.
29. ^Stefan Korbonski, The Polish Underground State, pp. 123-124 and 130. Jews Under Occupation Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
30. ^¹²³{{cite book |author=David Wdowiński |title=And we are not saved |year=1963 |page=222 |publisher=Philosophical Library |location=New York |isbn=0-8022-2486-5}} Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author".
31. ^¹{{cite book |editor1=Murray Baumgarten |editor2=Peter Kenez |editor3=Bruce Allan Thompson |author=Peter Kenez |title=The Attitude of the Polish Home Army (AK) to the Jewish Question during the Holocaust: the Case of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPs1Vaf6F9QC&pg=PA110 |date=January 2009 |publisher=University of Delaware Press |isbn=978-0-87413-039-3 |pages=121–122}}
32. ^{{cite book |author=Richard Conrad Lukas |title=The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation 1939–1944 |date=28 August 2012 |publisher=Hippocrene Books, Incorporated |isbn=978-0-7818-1302-0 |page=175}}
33. ^Moshe Arens, "Flags over the Warsaw Ghetto: The Untold Story of Warsaw Ghetto Uprising", Gefen Publishing House 2007 {{ISBN|9652293563}} page 186.
34. ^Yosef Kermisch, "To live with honour and die with honour! Selected documents from the Warsaw Ghetto Undergroung Archives. Oneg Shabbat", Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 1986.
35. ^Specifically, Jewish fighters of the Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) received from the Polish Home Army: 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades for the ghetto uprising. {{cite book |author=Richard Conrad Lukas |title=The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation 1939–1944 |date=28 August 2012 |publisher=Hippocrene Books, Incorporated |isbn=978-0-7818-1302-0 |page=175}}
36. ^Wroński (1971)
37. ^Strzembosz (1978), page 103.
38. ^¹Witkowski (1984).
39. ^Józef Garliński Hitler's Last Weapons: The Underground War against the V1 and V2, Times Books, New York 1978
40. ^Strzembosz (1983), page 283.
41. ^¹Jürgen Stroop, "Es gibt keinen jüdischen Wohnbezirk in Warschau mehr!", Warsaw 1943
42. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/strooptest.html |title=Statement by Stroop to Investigators About His Actions in the Warsaw Ghetto |date=1946-02-24 |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=2012-05-04}}
43. ^Moczarski (1984), page 103.
44. ^¹USHMM: Recognize someone? Askari or Trawniki guards peer into a doorway past the bodies of Jews killed during the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The original German caption reads: "Askaris used during the operation". Photo Archives. Hostile commentator: denaturalized former guard at Trawniki, Bruno Hajda, tried in the U.S., February 1996 (No. 97-2362).
45. ^Stroop Report 19 April 1943 at JPFO Site. Also at:Jewish Virtual Library Stroop report 19 April 1943 dated 20 April 1943.
46. ^Jewish Virtual Library Stroop report 19 April 1943 dated 20 April 1943.
47. ^Stroop report p. 7
48. ^Stroop Report pp. 25-30
49. ^Otto Hanke trial
50. ^[https://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=234816 Awards Warsaw Ghetto Destruction]
51. ^¹{{cite journal |author=Maciej Kledzik |date=October 2002 |title=ŻZW; Appelbaum w cieniu Anielewicza |journal=Rzeczpospolita |volume=10 |issue=12 |id=2002-10-11 |url=http://polish-jewish-heritage.org/Pol/listopad_zwiazek.html |accessdate=2006-05-09 |language=pl}}
52. ^{{cite book |author=Icchak Cukierman |title=A surplus of memory: chronicle of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising |year=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-07841-1 |page=702}}
53. ^{{cite journal |author=Pyotr Gorelik |date=August 2003 |title=КРЕПОСТЬ МАСАДА В ВАРШАВЕ (Masada fortress in Warsaw) |journal=Zametki po Evreiskoy Istorii |volume=2002-08-30 |issue=32 |url=http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer32/Gorelik1.htm |accessdate=2006-05-09 |language=ru}}
54. ^{{cite journal |author=Aleksandr Svishchev |date=July 2003 |title=Восстание в Варшавском гетто. Мифы и действительность (Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: myths and facts |journal=Еврейские новости (Jewish News) |volume=2003-07-23 |issue=27 (51) |url=http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer32/Svischev1.htm |accessdate=2006-05-09 |language=ru}}
55. ^¹Hubert Kuberski, {{cite web |url=http://mowiawieki.pl/index.php?page=ksiazki&id=38 |title=Mówią Wieki – Libionka/Weinbaum book review |publisher=Czasopismo Historyczne Mowiawieki.pl |date=2012-05-15 |accessdate=2012-11-25}}
56. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.wprost.pl/ar/317643/Historia-Zydowskiego-Zwiazku-Wojskowego-to-wieloletnia-historia-przeklaman/ |title=Historia Żydowskiego Związku Wojskowego to wieloletnia historia przekłamań – WPROST |publisher=Wprost.pl |date=2012-04-19 |accessdate=2012-11-25}}
57. ^Monika Krawczyk, "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: Military and Spiritual Resistance" Forum Zydow Polskich. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
58. ^Chaim Lazar: Litai Masada of Warsaw: The Jewish Military Organization in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising [Hebrew], Tel Aviv: Jabotinsky Institute in Israel, 2013.
59. ^{{Cite news |url=http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/6712/Border-Street/overview |title=Border-Street – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=2012-11-07}}{{subscription required}}
60. ^{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/30/nyregion/jack-eisner-77-holocaust-chronicler-dies.html |title=Jack Eisner, 77, Holocaust Chronicler, Dies |work=The New York Times |date=30 August 2003}}
61. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.wajda.pl/en/filmy/film32.html |title=Andrzej Wajda. Official Website of Polish movie director – Films – "The Holy Week" |website=Wajda.pl |accessdate=2012-11-07}}
62. ^{{cite news |last1=Kirsch |first1=Adam |title=Caught on Film |url=https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-arts-and-culture/books/51189/caught-on-film |accessdate=23 September 2018 |work=Tablet Magazine |date=23 November 2010 |language=en}}
63. ^¹{{cite news |title=How A Little Boy Became the Face of The Holocaust |url=http://100photos.time.com/photos/jewish-boy-surrenders-warsaw |accessdate=23 September 2018 |work=Time Magazine |issue=100 Photographs {{!}} The Most Influential Images of All Time}}
64. ^¹{{cite news |last1=Maltz |first1=Judy |title=Holocaust Studies / A picture worth six million names |url=https://www.haaretz.com/amp/life/books/1.5131028 |accessdate=23 September 2018 |work=Haaretz |date=3 March 2011 |language=en}}
65. ^¹²{{cite journal |last=Guttman |first=John |title=World War II: Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |date=March 2000 |journal=World War II Magazine |url=http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-warsaw-ghetto-uprising.htm |accessdate=2 May 2012}}
66. ^¹{{cite web |title=Jewish uprisings in Ghettos and Camps, 1941–1944 |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005407 |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |accessdate=2 May 2012}}
67. ^¹{{cite book |last=Mlynarczyk |first=Jace Andrzej |editor1-last=Musial |editor1-first=Bogdan |editor1-link=Bogdan Musial |title="Aktion Reinhard" – Die Vernichtung der Juden im Generalgouvernement |chapter=Treblinka – ein Todeslager der "Aktion Reinhard" |year=2004 |language=German |publisher=Fibre |location=Osnabrück |isbn= |pages=257–281}}
68. ^¹Court of Assizes in Düsseldorf, Germany. Excerpts From Judgments (Urteilsbegründung). AZ-LG Düsseldorf: II 931638.
69. ^¹The Nizkor Project, [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/strooptest.html Statement by Stroop to CMP investigators about his actions in the Warsaw Ghetto (24 February 1946)] Wiesbaden, Germany, 24 February 1946.
70. ^¹²Moshe Arens, Who Defended The Warsaw Ghetto? {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526200526/http://www.freeman.org/m_online/may03/arens.htm |date=26 May 2006 }} (The Jerusalem Post)
71. ^¹[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Strooptoc.html Jürgen Stroop Diary, including The Stroop Report: Table of Contents] (Jewish Virtual Library)
72. ^¹²Jewish Virtual Library, [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/sammern.html Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg] Source: Danny Dor (Ed.), Brave and Desperate. Israel Ghetto Fighters, 2003, p. 166.
73. ^¹²³{{cite book |first=Hanna |last=Krall |authorlink=Hanna Krall |coauthors= |title=Zdazyc przed Panem Bogiem |publisher=Wydawnictwo a5 |year=2008 |page=83 |language=Polish |isbn=83-61298-02-9}}
74. ^¹²{{cite book |first=Hanna |last=Krall |authorlink=Hanna Krall |others=transl. by Joanna Stasinska Weschler, Lawrence Weschler |title=Shielding the Flame: An intimate conversation with Dr Marek Edelman, the last surviving leader of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |publisher=Henry Holt & Company |year=1986 |page=95 |isbn=0-03-006002-8}}
75. ^¹²{{cite book |first=Hanna |last=Krall |authorlink=Hanna Krall |others=transl. by Joanna Stasinska Weschler, Lawrence Weschler |title=To Outwit God |publisher=Northwestern University Press |year=1992 |page=218 |isbn=0-8101-1050-4}}
76. ^¹²{{cite book |first=Hanna |last=Krall |authorlink=Hanna Krall |others=transl. by Joanna Stasinska Weschler, Lawrence Weschler |title=To Outwit God |publisher=Northwestern University Press |year=1992 |page=218 |isbn=0-8101-1075-X}}
77. ^¹²{{cite web |last=Barczynski |first=Roman |url=http://www.amopod.org/uprising/Addend_2.htm |title=Addendum 2: Facts about Polish Resistance and Aid to Ghetto Fighters |publisher=Americans of Polish Descent, Inc |year=2001 |accessdate=1 May 2012}}
78. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://wilk.wpk.p.lodz.pl/~whatfor//getto_43.htm |title=Ghetto 1943. Grossaktion Warschau |accessdate=2008-04-18 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418090034/http://wilk.wpk.p.lodz.pl/~whatfor//getto_43.htm |archivedate=18 April 2008 |df=dmy-all}}. {{pl icon}}
79. ^¹²Stefan Korbonski The Polish Underground State: A Guide to the Underground, 1939–1945 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927072018/http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/eehistory/H200Readings/Topic4-R3.html |date=27 September 2011 }}
80. ^¹²³Andrzej Sławiński, Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and The Polish Home Army – Questions and Answers. Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
81. ^¹Richard C. Lukas "Forgotten Holocaust – The Poles under German Occupation 1939–1944" Hippocrene Books 1997 {{ISBN|0-7818-0901-0}}
82. ^¹Stefan Korbonski, "The Polish Underground State: A Guide to the Underground, 1939–1945", pages 120–139, Excerpts {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927072018/http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/eehistory/H200Readings/Topic4-R3.html |date=27 September 2011 }}
83. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://ejpress.org/article/news/eastern_europe/16128 |title=Last Warsaw ghetto revolt commander honours fallen comrades |date=20 April 2007 |publisher=European Jewish Press |accessdate=2 May 2012}}
84. ^¹²From the [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nowarsaw.html Stroop Report] by SS Gruppenführer Jürgen Stroop, May 1943.
85. ^¹On Both Side of the Wall, pp. 94–109, New York: Holocaust Library, 1972, {{ISBN|0-89604-012-7}}
86. ^{{cite web |url=http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/GALL31R/51008.htm |title=Two Ukrainian Members of the SS |publisher=Fcit.usf.edu |accessdate=28 January 2012}}
87. ^¹²{{cite web |url=http://www.historynet.com/magazines/world_war_2/3032951.html?page=3&c=y |title=World War II: Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |publisher=Historynet.com |accessdate=28 January 2012}}
88. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/warsaw-uprising.html |title=The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, by Marek Edelman |publisher=Writing.upenn.edu |accessdate=28 January 2012}}
89. ^¹[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Benjamin_Wald.html Benjamin Wald] Jewish Virtual Library
90. ^¹[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Szerynski.html Josef "Andzi" Szerynski] Jewish Virtual Library
91. ^¹{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2961767.stm |title=Europe | Warsaw Jews mark uprising |work=BBC News |date=2003-04-20 |accessdate=2012-11-07}}
92. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/works/stroop-report/htm/strp020.htm |title=Online transcript of Stoop's report in German and English translation |publisher=Holocaust-history.org |accessdate=13 September 2017}}
93. ^¹Israel Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1945: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt, Indiana University Press, 1982 (p.393–394)
94. ^¹Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, Third Edition, Yale University Press, 2003 (volume 2, p. 537)
95. ^¹French L. MacLean, The Ghetto Men: The SS Destruction of the Jewish Warsaw Ghetto—April–May 1943, Schiffer Military History, 2001
96. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ar/treblinkadaytoday.html |title=Treblinka Day By Day |publisher=Holocaustresearchproject.org |date=10 November 1942 |accessdate=28 January 2018}}
97. ^¹Samuel Krakowski War of the Doomed – Jewish Armed Resistance in Poland, 1942–1944 {{ISBN|0-8419-0851-6}}, p. 213-14, Holmes & Meier Publishers 1984
98. ^¹Azoulay, Yuval. [https://www.haaretz.com/1.4975111 "IDF Chief, in Warsaw: Israel, its army are answer to Holocaust"], Haaretz, 29 April 2008.
99. ^¹A. Polonsky, (2012), The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume III, 1914 to 2008, p. 537
100. ^{{cite book |last=Raskin |first=Richard Raskin |year=2004 |title=A Child at Gunpoint: A Case Study in the Life of a Photo |publisher=Aarhus University Press |location=Aarhus |isbn=978-87-7934-099-2 |page=}}