“West Bengal”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

West Bengal ({{IPAc-en|b|ɛ|n|ˈ|ɡ|ɔː|l}}; {{lang-bn|Paschim Banga}}) is an Indian state, located in eastern region of the country on the Bay of Bengal. With over 91{{nbsp}}million inhabitants (as of 2011), it is India's fourth-most populous state. It has an area of {{convert|88752|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. A part of the ethno-linguistic Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent, it borders Bangladesh in the east, and Nepal and Bhutan in the north. It also borders the Indian states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim, and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata (Calcutta), the seventh-largest city in India, and center of the third-largest metropolitan area in the country. As for geography, West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region, the Ganges delta, the Rarh region, and the coastal Sundarbans. The main ethnic group are the Bengalis, with Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority.

The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major Janapadas (kingdoms), while the earliest cities date back to the Vedic period. The region was part of several ancient pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryans and Guptas. It was also a bastion of regional kingdoms. The citadel of Gauda served as the capital of the Gauda Kingdom, the Buddhist Pala Empire (eighth to 11th century) and Hindu Sena Empire (11th–12th century). From the 13th{{nbsp}}century onward, the region was ruled by several sultans, powerful Hindu states, and Baro-Bhuyan landlords, until the beginning of British rule in the 18th{{nbsp}}century. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and Calcutta served for many years as the capital of British India. The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in an expansion of Western education, culminating in developments in science, institutional education, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as the Bengali Renaissance. A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th{{nbsp}}century, Bengal was divided during India's independence in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal, a state of India, and East Bengal, a province of Pakistan which later became independent Bangladesh. Between 1977 and 2011 the state was administered by the world's longest elected Communist government.

The economy of West Bengal is the sixth-largest state economy in India with {{INRConvert|13.14|lc|lk=}} in gross domestic product and a per capita GDP of {{INRConvert|108|k}}.^[2]^[3] The state's cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, includes authors in literature, such as Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Kolkata is known as the "cultural capital of India". West Bengal is also known for its enthusiasm for the sport of association football, as well as cricket.

Etymology

The origin of the name Bengal (Bangla and Bongo in Bengali) is unknown. One theory suggests that the word derives from "Bang", a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000{{nbsp}}BCE.^[8] The Bengali word Bongo might have been derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (or Banga). Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name Vanga, the region's early history is obscure.^[9]

At the end of British rule over the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west. The eastern part came to be known be as East Pakistan, the eastern wing of newly born Pakistan and the western part came to be known as West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state.

In 2011 the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the official name of the state to PaschimBanga ({{lang-bn|পশ্চিমবঙ্গ}} Pôshchimbônggô).^[10] This is the native name of the state, literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language. In August 2016 the West Bengal Legislative Assembly passed another resolution to change the name of West Bengal to "Bengal" in English, and "Bangla" in Bengali. Despite the Trinamool Congress government's efforts to forge a consensus on the name change resolution, the Indian National Congress, the Left Front, and the Bharatiya Janata Party opposed the resolution.^[11] However, the central government has turned down the proposal stating that the state should have one single name for all languages instead of three and also the name should not be the same as that of any other territory (pointing out that the name 'Bangla' may create confusion with neighboring Bangladesh).^[11]^[12]^[13]

History

Ancient and classical period

The kingdom of Magadha was formed in the 7th{{nbsp}}century BCE, consisting of the regions now comprising Bihar and Bengal. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of the lives of Mahavira, founder of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism. It consisted of several janapadas, or kingdoms.^[19] Under Ashoka, the Maurya Empire of Magadha in the 3rd{{nbsp}}century BCE extended over nearly all of South Asia, including Afghanistan and parts of Balochistan.^[20] From the 3rd to the 6th{{nbsp}}centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire.^[21]

Two kingdoms{{snd}}Vanga or Samatata, and Gauda{{snd}}are mentioned in some texts to have appeared after the end of the Gupta Empire although details of their ascendancy are uncertain.^[22] The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka, who reigned in the early 7th{{nbsp}}century.^[23] Shashanka is often recorded in Buddhist annals as an intolerant Hindu ruler who is noted for his persecution of the Buddhists. Shashanka murdered Rajyavardhana, the Buddhist king of Thanesar, and is noted for destroying the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya, and replacing Buddha statues with Shiva lingams.^[24] After a period of anarchy,^[25]{{rp|36}} the Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years starting in the 8th{{nbsp}}century. It was followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty.^[26]

Some areas of Bengal were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty between 1021 and 1023.^[27] Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the 12th{{nbsp}}century when Sufi missionaries arrived.^[28] Later, occasional Muslim raiders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques, madrasas, and khanqahs. Between 1202 and 1206 Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate, overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur, Bogra, and the Brahmaputra River. Although he failed to bring Bengal under his control, the expedition defeated Lakshman Sen, whose two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur (present-day Munshiganj District), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late 13th{{nbsp}}century.^[26]

Medieval and early modern periods

Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.^[29] The region was ruled by dynasties of the Bengal Sultanate and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years. The Bengal Sultanate was interrupted for a period of twenty years by a Hindu uprising under Raja Ganesha. In the 16th{{nbsp}}century, Mughal general Islam Khan conquered Bengal. Administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi-independence under the Nawabs of Murshidabad, who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi. Several independent Hindu states were established in Bengal during the Mughal period, including those of Pratapaditya of Jessore District and Raja Sitaram Ray of Bardhaman. The Koch dynasty in northern Bengal flourished during the 16th and 17th{{nbsp}}centuries; it weathered the Mughals and survived until the advent of the British colonial era.^[30]^[31]

Colonial period

Several European traders reached this area late in the 15th{{nbsp}}century. The British East India Company defeated Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal subah (province) in 1765 with the signing of the treaty between the East India company and the Mughal emperor following the Battle of Buxar in 1764.^[32] The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765; it later incorporated all British-controlled territory north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives due to tax policies enacted by the British company.^[33] Calcutta, the headquarters of the East India company, was named in 1773 as the capital of British-held territories in India.^[34] The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in a transfer of authority to the British Crown,^[35] administered by the Viceroy of India.^[36]

The Bengal Renaissance and the Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements significantly influenced the cultural and economic life of Bengal.^[37] Between 1905 and 1911 an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones.^[38] Bengal suffered from the Great Bengal famine in 1943, which claimed 3{{nbsp}}million lives during World War{{nbsp}}II.^[39] Bengalis played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when news of Subhas Chandra Bose leading the Indian National Army against the British reached Bengal. The Indian National Army was subsequently routed by the British.^[40]

Indian independence and afterwards

When India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to the Dominion of India (and was named West Bengal), while the eastern part went to the Dominion of Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan in 1956). The latter became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971.^[41] In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal.^[49] In 1955 the former French enclave of Chandannagar, which had passed into Indian control after 1950, was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were also subsequently merged with West Bengal. Both West and East Bengal experienced large influxes of refugees during and after partition in 1947. Refugee resettlement and related issues continued to play a significant role in the politics and socio-economic condition of the state.^[42]

During the 1970s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes, and a violent Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.^[43] The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist), governed the state for the next three decades.^[44]

The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic liberalisations were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government. This was aided by the advent of information technology and IT-enabled services. Starting in the mid-2000s, armed activists conducted minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state^[45]^[46] while clashes with the administration took place at several controversial locations over the issue of industrial land acquisition,^[47]^[48] which became a decisive reason behind the defeat of the ruling Left Front government in the 2011 assembly election.^[49] Although the economy was severely damaged during the unrest in the 1970s, the state has managed to revive its economy, steadily throughout the years.^[50]^[51]^[52] The state has shown improvement regarding bandhs (strikes)^[53]^[54]^[55] and educational infrastructure.^[56] Significant strides have been made in reducing unemployment.^[57] Though the state suffers from substandard healthcare services,^[58]^[59] a lack of socio-economic development,^[60] poor infrastructure,^[61]^[62] unemployment, and civil violence.^[63]^[64] In 2006 the state's healthcare system was severely criticized in the aftermath of the West Bengal blood test kit scam.^[65]^[66]

Geography and climate

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of {{convert|88752|km2|sqmi|0}}.^[1] The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state is a part of the eastern Himalayas mountain range. In this region is Sandakfu, which, at {{convert|3636|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, is the highest peak in the state.^[67] The narrow Terai region separates the hills from the North Bengal plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is in the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.^[68]

The main river in West Bengal is the Ganges, which divides into two branches. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma, or Pôdda, while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River. The Farakka barrage over the Ganges feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a source of lingering dispute between India and Bangladesh.^[69] The Teesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka, and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers such as the Damodar, Ajay, and Kangsabati. The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem.^[70] Damodar, another tributary of the Ganges and once known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" (due to its frequent floods), has several dams under the Damodar Valley Project. At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater, and as of 2017, an estimated 1.04{{nbsp}}crore people were afflicted by arsenic poisioning^[71]

West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savanna in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, the rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with the highest daytime temperature ranging from {{convert|38|°C|°F|0}} to {{convert|45|°C|°F|0}}.^[72] At night, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer, brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi, or Nor'westers, often occur.^[73] West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian Ocean monsoon that moves in a southeast to northwest direction. Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. Heavy rainfall of above {{convert|250|cm|in}} is observed in the Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Cooch Behar district. During the arrival of the monsoons, low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the formation of storms in the coastal areas. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of {{convert|15|°C|°F|0}}.^[72] A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. The Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall.^[74]

Flora and fauna

As per the India State of Forest Report 2017, recorded forest area in the state is {{convert|16,847|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}},^[75] while in 2013, forest area was {{convert|16805|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which was 18.93% of the state's geographical area, compared to the then national average of 21.23%.^[76] Reserves and protected and unclassed forests constitute 59.4%, 31.8%, and 8.9%, respectively, of forested areas, as of 2009.^[77] Part of the world's largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans is located in southern West Bengal.^[78]

From a phytogeographic viewpoint, the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions: the Gangetic plain and the littoral mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.^[80] The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain, combined with favourable rainfall, makes this region especially fertile.^[80] Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state has similar species composition with the plants of the Chota Nagpur plateau in the adjoining state of Jharkhand.^[80] The predominant commercial tree species is Shorea robusta, commonly known as the sal tree. The coastal region of Purba Medinipur exhibits coastal vegetation; the predominant tree is the Casuarina. A notable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous sundari (Heritiera fomes), from which the forest gets its name.^[81]

The distribution of vegetation in northern West Bengal is dictated by elevation and precipitation. For example, the foothills of the Himalayas, the Dooars, are densely wooded with sal and other tropical evergreen trees.^[82] Above an elevation of {{convert|1000|m|ft}}, the forest becomes predominantly subtropical. In Darjeeling, which is above {{convert|1500|m|ft}}, temperate forest trees such as oaks, conifers, and rhododendrons predominate.^[82]

3.26% of the geographical area of West Bengal is protected land, comprising fifteen wildlife sanctuaries and five national parks^[77]{{snd}}Sundarbans National Park, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Gorumara National Park, Neora Valley National Park, and Singalila National Park. Extant wildlife include Indian rhinoceros, Indian elephant, deer, leopard, gaur, tiger, and crocodiles, as well as many bird species. Migratory birds come to the state during the winter.^[83] The high-altitude forests of Singalila National Park shelter barking deer, red panda, chinkara, takin, serow, pangolin, minivet, and kalij pheasants. The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project devoted to conserving the endangered Bengal tiger although the forest hosts many other endangered species such as the Gangetic dolphin, river terrapin, and estuarine crocodile.^[84] The mangrove forest also acts as a natural fish nursery, supporting coastal fishes along the Bay of Bengal.^[84] Recognising its special conservation value, the Sundarbans area has been declared a Biosphere Reserve.^[77]

Government and politics

West Bengal is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are two branches of government. The legislature, the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Calcutta High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister although the titular head of government is the Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 295 Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs,^[85] including one nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. Terms of office run for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes 42 seats to the Lok Sabha^[86] and 16 seats to the Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament.^[87]

The main players in the politics of the state are the All India Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress, and the Left Front alliance (led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M)). Following the West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2011, the All India Trinamool Congress and Indian National Congress coalition under Mamata Banerjee of the All India Trinamool Congress was elected to power (getting 225 seats in the legislature).^[88] Prior to this, West Bengal was ruled by the Left Front for 34 years (1977–2011), making it the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government.^[44] Banerjee was re-elected as Chief Minister in the 2016 election in which Trinamool Congress won an absolute majority.^[89]

The state has one autonomous region, the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration.^[90]

Districts

Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed by either the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service.^[92] Each district is subdivided into sub-divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.^[93]

The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata{{snd}}the third-largest urban agglomeration^[94] and the seventh-largest city^[95] in India. Asansol is the second-largest city and urban agglomeration in West Bengal after Kolkata.^[94] Siliguri is an economically important city, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India.^[96] Other cities and towns in West Bengal with 2011 populations over 250,000 are Durgapur, Bardhaman, English Bazar, Baharampur, Habra, Kharagpur, and Shantipur.^[97]

Economy

In 2015{{ndash}}2016, percentage share of Gross Value Added (GVA) at factor cost by Economic Activity at constant price (base year 2011{{ndash}}2012) was Agriculture-Forestry and Fishery{{snd}}4.84%, Industry 18.51% and Services 66.65%. It has been observed that there has been a slow but steady decline in the percentage share of industry and agriculture over the years.^[103] Agriculture is the leading economic sector in West Bengal. Rice is the state's principal food crop. Rice, potato, jute, sugarcane, and wheat are the top five crops of the state.^[125]{{rp|14}} Tea is produced commercially in northern districts; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high quality teas.^[125]{{rp|14}} State industries are localised in the Kolkata region, the mineral-rich western highlands, and the Haldia port region.^[104] The Durgapur{{ndash}}Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of steel plants.^[104] Important manufacturing industries are engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches, and wagons. The Durgapur centre has established a number of industries in the areas of tea, sugar, chemicals, and fertilisers. Natural resources like tea and jute in and nearby parts has made West Bengal a major centre for the jute and tea industries.^[105]

Years after independence, West Bengal is dependent on the central government for help in meeting its demands for food; food production remained stagnant, and the Indian green revolution bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since the 1980s, and the state now has a surplus of grains.^[106] The state's share of total industrial output in India was 9.8% in 1980{{ndash}}1981, declining to 5% by 1997{{ndash}}1998. In contrast, the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate.^[106] The state's total financial debt stood at {{INRConvert|1918350|m}} as of 2011.^[107]

In the period 2004{{ndash}}2010, the average gross state domestic product (GSDP) growth rate was 13.9% (calculated in Indian rupee terms) lower than 15.5%, the average for all states of the country.^[108]{{rp|4}}

The economy of West Bengal has witnessed many twists and turns. The agricultural sector in particular rose to 8.33% in 2010–11 before tumbling down to −4.01 % in 2012–13.^[109] Many major industries such as the Uttarpara Hindustan Motors car manufacturing unit, the jute industry, and the Haldia Petrochemicals unit experienced shutdowns in 2014. In the same year, plans for a 30,000 crore Jindal Steel project was mothballed. The tea industry of West Bengal has also witnessed shutdowns due to financial and political reasons.^[110] The tourism industry of West Bengal took a hit in 2017 due to the Gorkhaland agitation.^[111]

However, over the years due to effective changes in the stance towards industrialisation, ease of doing business has improved in West Bengal.^[112]^[113]^[114] Steps are being taken to remedy this situation by promoting West Bengal as an investment destination. A leather complex has been built in Kolkata, smart cities are being planned closed to Kolkata and major roadway projects are in the offing to revive the economy.^[115] West Bengal has been able to attract 2% of the foreign direct investment in the last decade.^[116]

Transport

As of 2011, the total length of surface road in West Bengal is over {{convert|92023|km|mi|0|abbr=off}};^[108]{{rp|18}} national highways comprise {{convert|2578|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}^[117] and state highways {{convert|2393|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.^[108]{{rp|18}} As of 2006, the road density of the state is {{convert|103.69|km/km2|abbr=off}}, higher than the national average of {{convert|74.7|km/km2|abbr=on}}.^[118]

As of 2011, the total railway route length is around {{convert|4481|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.^[108]{{rp|20}} Kolkata is the headquarters of three zones of the Indian Railways{{snd}}Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway, and the Kolkata Metro, which is the newly formed 17th{{nbsp}}zone of the Indian Railways.^[119]^[120] The Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) serves the northern parts of the state. The Kolkata metro is the country's first underground railway.^[121] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, part of NFR, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[122]

Kolkata is a major river port in eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages the Kolkata and the Haldia docks.^[125] There is passenger service to Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India. Ferries are a principal mode of transport in the southern part of the state, especially in the Sundarbans area. Kolkata is the only city in India to have trams as a mode of transport, and these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company.^[126]

Several government-owned organisations operate bus services in the state, including the Calcutta State Transport Corporation, the North Bengal State Transport Corporation, the South Bengal State Transport Corporation, the West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation, and the Calcutta Tramways Company.^[127] There are also private bus companies. The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment.^[128] Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and auto rickshaws, which often ply specific routes in cities. In most of the state, cycle rickshaws, and in Kolkata, hand-pulled rickshaws and electric rickshaws, are used for short-distance travel.^[129]

Demographics

According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census, West Bengal is the fourth-most-populous state in India with a population of 91,347,736 (7.55% of India's population).^[1] Bengalis, consisting of Bengali Hindus, Bengali Muslims, Bengali Christians and a few Bengali Buddhists, comprise the majority of the population.^[132] The Marwari, Maithil and Bhojpuri non-Bengali minorities are scattered throughout the state; various indigenous ethnic Buddhist communities such as the Sherpas, Bhutias, Lepchas, Tamangs, Yolmos, and ethnic Tibetans can be found in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region. Native Magahi speakers are found in Malda district.^[133] Surjapuri; a language that is considered to be a mix of Maithili and Bengali, is spoken across northern parts of the state.^[134] The Darjeeling district also has a large Nepali immigrant population, making Nepali a widely spoken language in this region. West Bengal is also home to indigenous tribal Adivasis such as Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Bhumij, Lodha, Kol, and Toto tribe. There are a small number of ethnic minorities primarily in the state capital, including Chinese, Tamils, Maharashtrians, Odias, Assamese, Malayalis, Gujaratis, Anglo-Indians, Armenians, Jews, Punjabis, and Parsis.^[135] India's sole Chinatown is in eastern Kolkata.^[136]

}}West Bengal is religiously diverse, with regional cultural and religious specificities. Although Hindus are the predominant community, the state has a large minority Muslim population. Christians, Buddhists, and others form a minuscule part of the population. As of 2011, Hinduism is the largest religion, with adherents representing 70.54% of the total population,^[141] while Muslims comprise 27.01% of the total population, being the second-largest community as well as the largest minority group.^[142] Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, and other religions make up the remainder.^[143] Buddhism remains a prominent religion in the Himalayan region of the Darjeeling hills, and almost the entirety of West Bengal's Buddhist population are from this region.^[144]

The state contributes 7.8% of India's population.^[145] The Hindu population of West Bengal is 64,385,546 while the Muslim population is 24,654,825, as per the 2011 census.^[146] The state's 2001–2011 decennial population growth rate was 13.93%,^[1] lower than the 1991–2001 growth rate of 17.8%,^[1] and also lower than the national rate of 17.64%.^[147] The gender ratio is 947 females per 1000 males.^[147] As of 2011, West Bengal had a population density of {{convert|1029|PD/km2}} making it the second-most densely populated state in India, after Bihar.^[147]

The literacy rate is 77.08%, higher than the national rate of 74.04%.^[148] Data of 2010{{ndash}}2014 showed the life expectancy in the state was 70.2{{nbsp}}years, higher than the national value of 67.9.^[149]^[150] The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 2013 was 19.98%, declining from 31.8% a decade ago.^[151] Scheduled castes and tribes form 28.6% and 5.8% of the population, respectively, in rural areas, and 19.9% and 1.5%, respectively, in urban areas.^[106]

In September 2017, West Bengal achieved 100% electrification, after some remote villages in the Sunderbans became the latest to be electrified.^[152]

As of September 2017, out of 125 towns and cities in Bengal, 76 have achieved Open Defecation Free (ODF) status. All towns in the districts of Nadia, North 24 Parganas, Hooghly, Burdwan and East Midnapore are ODF zones, with Nadia becoming the first ODF district in the state in April 2015.^[153]^[154]

A study conducted in three districts of West Bengal found that accessing private health services to treat illness had a catastrophic impact on households. This indicates the importance of public provision of health services to mitigate against poverty and the impact of illness on poor households.^[155]

The latest Sample Registration System (SRS) statistical report shows that West Bengal has the lowest fertility rate among Indian states. West Bengal's total fertility rate was 1.6, way below Bihar's 3.4, which is the highest in the entire country. Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.^[156]

Culture

Literature

The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage that it shares with neighbouring Bangladesh. West Bengal has a long tradition of folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, a collection of Buddhist mystic songs dating back to the 10th and 11th{{nbsp}}centuries; Mangalkavya, a collection of Hindu narrative poetry composed around the 13th{{nbsp}}century; Shreekrishna Kirtana, a pastoral Vaishnava drama in verse composed by Boru Chandidas; Thakurmar Jhuli, a collection of Bengali folk and fairy tales compiled by Dakshinaranjan Mitra Majumder; and stories of Gopal Bhar, a court jester in medieval Bengal. In the 19th and 20th{{nbsp}}centuries, Bengali literature was modernised in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, whose innovative works marked a departure from the traditional verse-oriented writings prevalent in that period;^[159] Michael Madhusudan Dutt, a pioneer in Bengali drama who introduced the use of blank verse;^[160] and Rabindranath Tagore, who reshaped Bengali literature and music. Indian art saw the introduction of Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th{{nbsp}}centuries.^[161] Other notable figures include Kazi Nazrul Islam, whose compositions form the avant-garde genre of Nazrul Sangeet,^[162] Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, whose works on contemporary social practices in Bengal are widely acclaimed,^[163] and Manik Bandyopadhyay, who is considered one of the leading lights of modern Bengali fiction.^[164] In modern times, Jibanananda Das has been acknowledged as "the premier poet of the post-Tagore era in India".^[165] Other writers include Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, best known for his work Pather Panchali; Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, well known for his portrayal of the lower strata of society;^[166] Manik Bandopadhyay, a pioneering novelist; and Ashapurna Devi, Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Saradindu Bandopadhyay, Buddhadeb Guha, Mahashweta Devi, Samaresh Majumdar, Sanjeev Chattopadhyay, Shakti Chattopadhyay, Buddhadeb Basu,^[167] Joy Goswami, and Sunil Gangopadhyay.^[168]^[169]

Music and dance

A notable music tradition is the Baul music, practiced by the Bauls, a sect of mystic minstrels.^[170] Other folk music forms include Gombhira and Bhawaiya. Folk music in West Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Shyama Sangeet is a genre of devotional songs, praising the Hindu goddess Kali;^[171] kirtan is devotional group songs dedicated to the god Krishna.^[172] Like other states in northern India, West Bengal also has a heritage in North Indian classical music. "Rabindrasangeet", songs composed and set into tune by Rabindranath Tagore, and "Nazrul geeti" (by Kazi Nazrul Islam) are popular. Also prominent are Dwijendralal, Atulprasad and Rajanikanta's songs, and "adhunik" or modern music from films and other composers.^[173] From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence of new genres of music, including what has been called Bengali Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism). Bengali dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance traditions. Chhau dance of Purulia is a rare form of masked dance.^[174]

Films

Fine arts

There are significant examples of fine arts in Bengal from earlier times, including the terracotta art of Hindu temples and the Kalighat paintings. Bengal has been in the vanguard of modernism in fine arts. Abanindranath Tagore, called the father of modern Indian art, started the Bengal School of Art, one of whose goals was to promote the development of styles of art outside the European realist tradition that had been taught in art colleges under the British colonial administration. The movement had many adherents, including Gaganendranath Tagore, Ramkinkar Baij, Jamini Roy, and Rabindranath Tagore. After Indian Independence, important groups such as the Calcutta Group and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in Bengal and came to dominate the art scene in India.^[180]^[181]

Reformist heritage

The capital, Kolkata, was the workplace of several social reformers, including Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Swami Vivekananda. Their social reforms eventually led to a cultural atmosphere that made it possible for practices like sati, dowry, and caste-based discrimination, or untouchability, to be abolished.^[182] The region was also home to several religious teachers, such as Chaitanya, Ramakrishna, Prabhupada, and Paramahansa Yogananda.^[182]

Cuisine

Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying in Bengali, machhe bhate bangali, that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali".^[183] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. There are numerous ways of cooking fish depending on the fish's texture, size, fat content, and bones.^[184] Most of the people also consume eggs, chicken, mutton, and shrimp. Panta bhat (rice soaked overnight in water) with onion and green chili is a traditional dish consumed in rural areas,^[185] Common spices found in a Bengali kitchen are cumin, ajmoda (radhuni), bay leaf, mustard, ginger, green chillies, and turmeric.^[186] Sweets occupy an important place in the diet of Bengalis and at their social ceremonies. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, Kalojam, and several kinds of sondesh. Pitha, a kind of sweet cake, bread, or dimsum, are specialties of the winter season. Sweets such as narkol-naru, til-naru, moa, and payesh are prepared during the festivals such as Lakshmi puja.^[187] Popular street foods include Aloor Chop, Beguni, Kati roll, biryani, and phuchka.^[188]^[189]

Clothing

Bengali women commonly wear the sari, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear western attire. Among men, western dress has greater acceptance. Particularly on cultural occasions, men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti while women wear salwar kameez or sari.^[190]

West Bengal produces several varieties of cotton and silk saris in the country. Handlooms are a popular way of livelihood to the rural population of the state. Every district has weaving "clusters", which are home to artisan communities, each specialising in specific varieties of handloom weaving. Notable handloom saris include tant, jamdani, garad, korial, baluchari, tussar, and muslin.^[191]

Festivals

Other major festivals of West Bengal include Poila Baishakh the Bengali new year, Dolyatra or Holi the festival of lights, Poush Parbon, Kali Puja, Nabadwip Shakta Rash, Saraswati Puja, Deepaboli, Lakshmi Puja, Janmashtami, Jagaddhatri Puja, Vishwakarma Puja, Bhai Phonta, Rakhi Bandhan, Kalpataru Day, Shivratri, Ganesh Chathurthi, Maghotsav, Kartik Puja, Akshay Tritiya, Raas Yatra, Guru Purnima, Annapurna Puja, Charak Puja, Gajan, Buddha Purnima, Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Muharram. Rabindra Jayanti, Kolkata Book Fair, Kolkata Film Festival, and Nazrul Jayanti are important cultural events.^[195]

Poush mela is a popular winter festival of Shantiniketan, with performances of folk music, Baul songs, dance, and theatre taking place throughout the town.^[196]

Ganga Sagar mela coincides with the Makar Sankranti, and hundreds of thousands of Hindu pilgrims converge where the river Ganges meets the sea to bathe en{{nbsp}}masse during this fervent festival.^[195]

Education

West Bengal schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though Urdu is also used, especially in Central Kolkata. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS), West Bengal Board of Secondary Education or the West Bengal Board of Madrasah Education.^[199]

As of 2016 85% of children within the age group of 6 to 17 years attend school (86% do so in urban areas and 84% in rural areas).School attendance is almost

universal among the age group of 6 to 14 years, and then drops to 70 percent at the age group 15 to 17 years. There is a gender disparity in school attendance in the age group 6–14 years, more girls than boys are attending school.

In Bengal, 71 percent of women aged 15 to 49 years and 81 percent of men aged 15 to 49 years are literate. Only 14 percent of women aged 15 to 49 years in West Bengal have completed 12 or more years of schooling, compared with 22 percent of men. Twenty-two percent of women and 14 percent of men age 15 to 49 years have never been to school. Only 14 percent of women aged 15 to 49 years in West Bengal have completed 12 or more years of schooling, compared with 22% of men.^[200]

Some of the notable schools in the city are La Martiniere Calcutta, Calcutta Boys' School, St. James' School (Kolkata), St. Xavier's Collegiate School, and Loreto House, Loreto Convent, Asansol some of which rank amongst the best schools in the country.^[201] Many of the schools in Kolkata and Darjeeling are colonial-era establishments housed in buildings that are exemplars of neo-classical architecture. The schools of Darjeeling include St. Paul's, St. Joseph's North Point, Goethals Memorial School, and Dow Hill in Kurseong.^[202]

West Bengal has eighteen universities.^[203]^[204] Kolkata has played a pioneering role in the development of the modern education system in India. It was the gateway to the revolution of European education during the British Raj.^[205] Sir William Jones established the Asiatic Society in 1794 for promoting oriental studies. People such as Ram Mohan Roy, David Hare, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Alexander Duff and William Carey played leading roles in the setting up of modern schools and colleges in the city.^[196]

The University of Calcutta, the oldest public university in India, has 136 affiliated colleges. Fort William College was established in 1810. The Hindu College was established in 1817. The Lady Brabourne College was established in 1939. The Scottish Church College, which is the oldest Christian liberal arts college in South Asia, started its journey in 1830. In 1855 the Hindu College was renamed the Presidency College.^[206] In 2010 it was granted university status by the state government and was renamed Presidency University. Kazi Nazrul University was established in 2012. The University of Calcutta and Jadavpur University are prestigious technical universities.^[207] Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan is a central university and an institution of national importance.^[208]

Other higher education institutes of importance in West Bengal include St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta (the first IIM), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata, Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (the first IIT), Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur (the first IIEST), Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kalyani, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Kolkata, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, and West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences. In 2003 the state government supported the creation of West Bengal University of Technology, West Bengal University of Health Sciences, West Bengal State University, and Gour Banga University.^[209]

Besides these, the state is home to Kalyani University, The University of Burdwan, Vidyasagar University, and North Bengal University all well as established and nationally renowned to cover education needs at the district level and an Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata. Apart from this there is a Deemed university run by the Ramakrishna mission named Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University at Belur Math.^[211]

There are a number of research institutes in Kolkata. The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science is the first research institute in Asia. C. V. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery (Raman Effect) done in IACS. The Bose Institute, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibers, National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fibre Technology, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Biomedical Genomics (NIBMG), Kalyani, and the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre are the most prominent.^[209]

Notable scholars who were born, worked, or studied in the geographic area of the state include physicists Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad Saha,^[212] and Jagadish Chandra Bose;^[213] chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy;^[212] statisticians Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis and Anil Kumar Gain;^[212] physician Upendranath Brahmachari;^[212] educator Ashutosh Mukherjee;^[214] and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore,^[215] C. V. Raman,^[213] and Amartya Sen.^[216]

Media

In 2005 West Bengal had 505 published newspapers,^[217] of which 389 were in Bengali.^[217] Ananda Bazar Patrika, published from Kolkata with 1,277,801 daily copies, has the largest circulation for a single-edition, regional language newspaper in India.^[217] Other major Bengali newspapers are Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Aajkaal, Jago Bangla, Uttarbanga Sambad, and Ganashakti. Major English language newspapers include The Telegraph, The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Statesman, The Indian Express, and Asian Age. Some prominent financial dailies such as The Economic Times, Financial Express, Business Line, and Business Standard are widely circulated. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Nepali, Gujarati, Odia, Urdu, and Punjabi are also read by a select readership.^[218]

Sports

West Bengal has several large stadiums. Eden Gardens was one of only two 100,000-seat cricket stadiums in the world;^[224] renovation before 2011 Cricket World Cup reduced the capacity to 66,000.^[225] The stadium is the home to various cricket teams such as the Kolkata Knight Riders, the Bengal cricket team, and the East Zone. The 1987 Cricket World Cup final was hosted in Eden Gardens. Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in the world.^[226]

Salt Lake Stadium / Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan (VYBK), is a multipurpose stadium in Kolkata, with a current capacity of 85,000. It is the largest stadium in India by seating capacity.^[227] Before its renovation in 2011, it was the second largest football stadium in the world, having a seating capacity of 120,000. It has hosted many national and international sporting events like SAF Games of 1987 and the 2011 FIFA friendly football match between Argentina and Venezuela featuring Lionel Messi.^[228] In 2008 Legendary German Goalkeeper, Oliver Kahn played his last farewell match on this ground.^[229] The stadium hosted the final match of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup.

Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly, Pankaj Roy, Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, and chess grand master Dibyendu Barua.^[230]^[231]^[232]

See also

Notes

1. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web |url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |title = Area, population, decennial growth rate and density for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal |publisher = Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |accessdate = 26 January 2012 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120107060612/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |archivedate = 7 January 2012 |df = dmy-all }}
2. ^¹{{cite web|title=West Bengal Budget Analysis 2018–19|url=http://www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/State%20Budget%202018-19/West%20Bengal%20Budget%20Analysis%202018-19.pdf|website=Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability, India|accessdate=1 February 2018}}
3. ^¹{{cite web |title=Medium term fiscal policy statement & fiscal policy stratergy statement for 2018–19 |url=http://www.wbfin.nic.in/writereaddata/Fiscal_Policy/MTFP18_Part1.pdf |publisher=Finance Department, Government of West Bengal |accessdate=8 June 2018 |page=6 |date=January 2018}}
4. ^{{cite web|title=Fact and Figures|url=https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/facts-and-figures;jsessionid=JzdD9RHb7aMY5esZPtcsIVLy|website=www.wb.gov.in|accessdate=30 March 2018}}
5. ^{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI - Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |accessdate=25 September 2018 |language=en}}
6. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |title = Sex ratio, 0–6 age population, literates and literacy rate by sex for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal |publisher = Government of India:Ministry of Home Affairs |accessdate = 29 January 2012 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120107060612/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |archivedate = 7 January 2012 |df = dmy-all }}
7. ^{{cite web|title=Sex Ratio in West Bengal|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/sexratio.php|website=Census of India 2011|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227054841/http://www.census2011.co.in/sexratio.php|archivedate=27 February 2014}}
8. ^{{cite web |url = http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm|title = Bangladesh: early history, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1202 |date = September 1988 |work = Bangladesh: A country study |publisher = Library of Congress |location = Washington, D.C. |accessdate = 2 March 2012 |quote = Historians believe that Bengal, the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, was settled in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga, Bangala, Bangal, and Bengal. |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170615070625/http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm |archivedate = 15 June 2017 |df = dmy-all }}
9. ^{{cite book |last = Marshman |first = John Clark |authorlink = John Clark Marshman |title = Outline of the History of Bengal |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=845eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 |year = 1865 |publisher = John Clark Marshman |page = 1 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171204062800/https://books.google.com/books?id=845eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 |archivedate = 4 December 2017 |df = dmy-all }}
10. ^{{cite news |title = West Bengal may be renamed PaschimBanga |url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2373155.ece |newspaper = The Hindu |location = Chennai, India |date = 19 August 2011 |accessdate = 7 February 2012 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120121204545/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2373155.ece |archivedate = 21 January 2012 |df = dmy-all }}
11. ^¹{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Assembly-drops-West-renames-State-as-Bengal/article14596751.ece|title=Assembly drops West, renames State as Bengal|date=29 August 2016|work=The Hindu|access-date=4 January 2018|others=Special Correspondent|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225084838/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Assembly-drops-West-renames-State-as-Bengal/article14596751.ece|archivedate=25 December 2016}}
12. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/mar/29/foreign-ministry-turns-down-mamata-banerjees-bangla-for-west-bengal-1587394--1.html|title=Foreign ministry turns down Mamata Banerjee's ‘Bangla’ for West Bengal|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=20 December 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051528/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/mar/29/foreign-ministry-turns-down-mamata-banerjees-bangla-for-west-bengal-1587394--1.html|archivedate=22 December 2017}}
13. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/west-bengal-to-send-another-proposal-to-centre-on-changing-its-name/story-VaJhR4kFv9WhaYEk6QmQKI.html|title=West Bengal to send another proposal to Centre on changing its name|date=8 September 2017|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=20 December 2017|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051404/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/west-bengal-to-send-another-proposal-to-centre-on-changing-its-name/story-VaJhR4kFv9WhaYEk6QmQKI.html|archivedate=22 December 2017}}
14. ^{{cite news |title = History of Bengal just got a lot older |first = Sebanti |last = Sarkar |url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080328/jsp/frontpage/story_9067406.jsp |newspaper = The Telegraph |location = Calcutta, India |date = 28 March 2008 |accessdate = 13 September 2010 |quote = Humans walked on Bengal's soil 20,000 years ago, archaeologists have found out, pushing the state's pre-history back by some 8,000 years. |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110912042911/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080328/jsp/frontpage/story_9067406.jsp |archivedate = 12 September 2011 |df = dmy-all }}
15. ^{{cite book |last = Sen |first = S. N. |title = Ancient Indian History And Civilization |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC |year = 1999 |publisher = New Age International |isbn = 978-81-224-1198-0 |pages = 273–274 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101213233/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC |archivedate = 1 January 2016 |df = dmy-all }}
16. ^{{cite book |first = Dilip K. |last = Chakrabarti |year = 2001 |title = Archaeological Geography of the Ganga Plain: The Lower and the Middle Ganga |pages = 154–155 |publisher = Permanent Black |location = Delhi |isbn = 978-81-7824-016-9 }}
17. ^{{cite book |title = Foreign trade and commerce in ancient India |last = Prasad |first = Prakash Chandra |year = 2003 |publisher = Abhinav Publications |location = New Delhi |isbn = 978-81-7017-053-2 |page = 28 |url = https://books.google.com/?id=mFW3sXnzEQ4C&pg=PA231&dq=ancient+history+of+bengal+trade#v=onepage&q=bengal&f=false }}
18. ^{{cite book|first2=Mabel |last2= Haynes Bode |last1 = Geiger |first1 = Wilhelm |authorlink = Wilhelm Geiger |title = Mahavamsa: Great Chronicle of Ceylon |url = https://books.google.com/?id=nX2af3kcregC&printsec=frontcover&dq=wilhelm+geiger#v=onepage&q&f=false|year = 2003 |origyear = 1908 |publisher = Asian Educational Services |location = New Delhi |isbn = 978-81-206-0218-2 |chapter = Chapter VI: The Coming of Vijaya |chapterurl = http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chap006.html |pages = 51–54 }}
19. ^{{cite web |url = http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Settlement_in_Bengal |title = Settlement in Bengal (Early Period) |last = Sultana |first = Sabiha |accessdate = 12 June 2015 |work = Banglapedia |publisher = Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150614193503/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Settlement_in_Bengal |archivedate = 14 June 2015 |df = dmy-all }}
20. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=YgAp2MuMR84C&pg=PA25&dq=mauryan+empire+balochistan |title = The Truth of Babri Mosque|publisher=iUniverse|first=Ashok|last=Pant |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090422/https://books.google.nl/books?id=YgAp2MuMR84C&pg=PA25&dq=mauryan+empire+balochistan&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=IufwVIaPOILAOb3BgWg&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAg |archivedate = 2 April 2015 |df = dmy-all|pages=25, 26 |isbn = 9781475942903|date = 2012-08-31}}
21. ^{{cite book|last=Mookerji|first=Radhakumud|title=The Gupta Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC|year=1959|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0440-1|pages=11, 113}}
22. ^{{cite book |last = Sen |first = Sailendra Nath |title = Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA275 |date = 1 January 1999 |publisher = New Age International |isbn = 978-81-224-1198-0 |page = 275 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151231212731/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA275 |archivedate = 31 December 2015 |df = dmy-all }}
23. ^{{cite web |url = http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Shashanka |title = Shashanka |accessdate = 12 June 2015 |work = Banglapedia |publisher = Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150614200631/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Shashanka |archivedate = 14 June 2015 |df = dmy-all }}
24. ^{{cite web |title = Intolerance debate: How some historical brutalities are more special than others |url = http://scroll.in/article/774898/intolerance-debate-how-some-historical-brutalities-are-more-special-than-others |website = Scroll.in |accessdate = 25 December 2015 |language = en-US |first = Tony |last = Joseph |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225181534/http://scroll.in/article/774898/intolerance-debate-how-some-historical-brutalities-are-more-special-than-others |archivedate = 25 December 2015 |df = dmy-all }}
25. ^{{cite book |last = Bagchi |first = Jhunu |title = The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir. 1200 A.D |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC |publisher = Abhinav Publications |isbn = 978-81-7017-301-4 |year = 1993 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160423230909/https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC |archivedate = 23 April 2016 |df = dmy-all }}
26. ^¹{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Mojlum|title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|date=21 October 2013|publisher=Kube Publishing Limited|isbn=978-1-84774-062-5|pages=15–16|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126080958/https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|archivedate=26 January 2018}}
27. ^{{cite book |last = Sengupta |first = Nitish K. |title = Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA45 |publisher = Penguin Books India |year = 2011 |isbn = 978-0-14-341678-4 |page = 45 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101213233/https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA45 |archivedate = 1 January 2016 |df = dmy-all }}
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137. ^¹²³{{cite web |url = http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |title = Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 52nd report (July 2014 to June 2015) |pages = 85–86 |publisher = Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |accessdate = 16 February 2016 |deadurl = yes |df = dmy-all |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161115133948/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archivedate = 15 November 2016 }}
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139. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-1179890-2018-02-28 |title=Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in |last=Roy |first=Anirban |date=28 February 2018 |publisher=India Today}}
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145. ^Population of West Bengal (80,221,171) is 7.8% of India's population (1,027,015,247)
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149. ^{{cite web |title = Contents 2010–14 |url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTENTS-2010-14.pdf |publisher = OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL & CENSUS COMMISSIONER, INDIA |accessdate = 12 January 2017 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161113174353/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTENTS-2010-14.pdf |archivedate = 13 November 2016 |df = dmy-all }}
150. ^{{cite web |title = Abridged Life Tables- 2010–14 |url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf |page = 5 |publisher = OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL & CENSUS COMMISSIONER, INDIA |accessdate = 12 January 2017 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170110123124/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf |archivedate = 10 January 2017 |df = dmy-all }}
151. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |title = Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line |publisher = Reserve Bank of India, Government of India |year = 2013 |accessdate = 20 April 2014 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102043/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |archivedate = 7 April 2014 |df = dmy-all }}
152. ^{{Cite news|url=|title=Bengal is 100% electrified now|last=|first=|date=3 November 2017|work=The Times of India, Kolkata|access-date=}}
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