| 词条 | William Gilbert (astronomer) |
| 释义 |
| name = William Gilbert | image = William Gilbert 45626i.jpg | caption = William Gilbert | birth_date = 24 May 1544 | birth_place = Colchester, England | death_date = {{death date and age|1603|11|30|1544|5|24|df=y}} | death_place = London, England | education = St John's College, Cambridge (MD, 1569) | nationality = English | field = Physician | known_for = Studies of magnetism, De Magnete }}William Gilbert ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|l|b|ər|t}}; 24 May 1544 – 30 November 1603), also known as Gilberd,[1] was an English physician, physicist and natural philosopher. He passionately rejected both the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the Scholastic method of university teaching. He is remembered today largely for his book De Magnete (1600), and is credited as one of the originators of the term "electricity". He is regarded by some as the father of electrical engineering or electricity and magnetism.[2] A unit of magnetomotive force, also known as magnetic potential, was named the Gilbert in his honour. Life and workGilbert was born in Colchester to Jerome Gilberd, a borough recorder. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge.[3] After gaining his MD from Cambridge in 1569, and a short spell as bursar of St John's College, he left to practice medicine in London and travelled on the continent. In 1573, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1600 he was elected President of the College.[4] He was Elizabeth I's own physician from 1601 until her death in 1603, and James VI and I renewed his appointment.[5]{{rp|30}} His primary scientific work—much inspired by earlier works of Robert Norman[6][7]—was De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth) published in 1600. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. From these experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). He was the first to argue, correctly, that the centre of the Earth was iron, and he considered an important and related property of magnets was that they can be cut, each forming a new magnet with north and south poles. In Book 6, Chapter 3, he argues in support of diurnal rotation, though he does not talk about heliocentrism, stating that it is an absurdity to think that the immense celestial spheres (doubting even that they exist) rotate daily, as opposed to the diurnal rotation of the much smaller Earth. He also posits that the "fixed" stars are at remote variable distances rather than fixed to an imaginary sphere. He states that situated "in thinnest aether, or in the most subtle fifth essence, or in vacuity – how shall the stars keep their places in the mighty swirl of these enormous spheres composed of a substance of which no one knows aught?" The English word "electricity" was first used in 1646 by Sir Thomas Browne, derived from Gilbert's 1600 New Latin electricus, meaning "like amber". The term had been in use since the 13th century, but Gilbert was the first to use it to mean "like amber in its attractive properties". He recognized that friction with these objects removed a so-called "effluvium", which would cause the attraction effect in returning to the object, though he did not realize that this substance (electric charge) was universal to all materials.[8] {{quote|The electric effluvia differ much from air, and as air is the earth's effluvium, so electric bodies have their own distinctive effluvia; and each peculiar effluvium has its own individual power of leading to union, its own movement to its origin, to its fount, and to the body emitting the effluvium.|{{harvnb|Gilbert|1893}}}}In his book, he also studied static electricity using amber; amber is called elektron in Greek, so Gilbert decided to call its effect the electric force. He invented the first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope, in the form of a pivoted needle he called the versorium.[9] Like others of his day, he believed that crystal (quartz) was an especially hard form of water, formed from compressed ice: {{quote|Lucid gems are made of water; just as Crystal, which has been concreted from clear water, not always by a very great cold, as some used to judge, and by very hard frost, but sometimes by a less severe one, the nature of the soil fashioning it, the humour or juices being shut up in definite cavities, in the way in which spars are produced in mines.|De Magnete, English translation by Silvanus Phillips Thompson, 1900}}Gilbert argued that electricity and magnetism were not the same thing. For evidence, he (incorrectly) pointed out that, while electrical attraction disappeared with heat, magnetic attraction did not (although it is proven that magnetism does in fact become damaged and weakened with heat). Hans Christian Ørsted and James Clerk Maxwell showed that both effects were aspects of a single force: electromagnetism. Maxwell surmised this in his A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism after much analysis. Gilbert's magnetism was the invisible force that many other natural philosophers, such as Kepler, seized upon, incorrectly, as governing the motions that they observed. While not attributing magnetism to attraction among the stars, Gilbert pointed out the motion of the skies was due to Earth's rotation, and not the rotation of the spheres, 20 years before Galileo (but 57 years after Copernicus who stated it openly in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium published in 1543 ) (see external reference below). Gilbert made the first attempt to map the surface markings on the Moon in the 1590s. His chart, made without the use of a telescope, showed outlines of dark and light patches on the Moon's face. Contrary to most of his contemporaries, Gilbert believed that the light spots on the Moon were water, and the dark spots land.[10] Besides Gilbert's De Magnete, there appeared at Amsterdam in 1651 a quarto volume of 316 pages entitled De Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova (New Philosophy about our Sublunary World), edited—some say by his brother William Gilbert Junior, and others say, by the eminent English scholar and critic John Gruter—from two manuscripts found in the library of Sir William Boswell. According to Dr. John Davy, "this work of Gilbert's, which is so little known, is a very remarkable one both in style and matter; and there is a vigor and energy of expression belonging to it very suitable to its originality. Possessed of a more minute and practical knowledge of natural philosophy than Bacon, his opposition to the philosophy of the schools was more searching and particular, and at the same time probably little less efficient." In the opinion of Prof. John Robison, De Mundo consists of an attempt to establish a new system of natural philosophy upon the ruins of the Aristotelian doctrine.[4] Dr. William Whewell says in his History of the Inductive Sciences (1859):[11]
Gilbert died on 30 November 1603 in London. His cause of death is thought to have been the bubonic plague.[15][16] Gilbert was buried in his home town, in Holy Trinity Church, Colchester. His marble wall monument can still be seen in this Saxon church, now deconsecrated and used as a café and market.[17] Commentary on GilbertFrancis Bacon never accepted Copernican heliocentrism and was critical of Gilbert's philosophical work in support of the diurnal motion of the Earth. Bacon's criticism includes the following two statements. The first was repeated in three of his works—In the Advancement of Learning (1605), Novum Organum (1620) and De Augmentis (1623). The more severe second statement is from History of Heavy and Light Bodies published after Bacon's death.[18]
Thomas Thomson writes in his History of the Royal Society (1812):[19] William Whewell writes in his History of the Inductive Sciences (1837/1859):[20]
Historian Henry Hallam wrote of Gilbert in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries (1848):[21]
Walter William Bryant of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, wrote in his book Kepler (1920):
Bibliography
See also{{Wikipedia books|Geomagnetism}}
References1. ^While today he is generally referred to as William Gilbert, he also went under the name of William Gilberd. The latter was used in both his and his father's epitaphs and in the records of the town of Colchester. {{harv|Gilbert|1893|p=ix}} 2. ^Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5. 3. ^{{acad|id=GLBT558W|name=Gilbert, William}} 4. ^1 Mottelay, P. Fleury (1893). "Biographical memoir". In {{harvnb|Gilbert|1893|pp=ix–xxvii}} 5. ^{{cite book |last=Pumfrey |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Latitude & the Magnetic Earth |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=1-84046-486-0}} 6. ^{{cite journal |last=Zilsel |first=Edgar |title=The Origin of William Gilbert’s Scientific Method |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=2 |pages=1–32 |year=1941 |jstor=2707279 |url=http://philoscience.unibe.ch/documents/MaterialHS11/PSWissRev/Zilsel1941.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714194058/http://philoscience.unibe.ch/documents/MaterialHS11/PSWissRev/Zilsel1941.pdf |archivedate=14 July 2014 |df=dmy-all }} 7. ^Roller, Duane H D (1959) The De Magnete of William Gilbert, Amsterdam. 8. ^{{cite journal |last=Heathcote |first=Niels H. de V. |doi=10.1080/00033796700203316 |volume=23 |issue=4 |page=261 |title=The early meaning of electricity: Some Pseudodoxia Epidemica – I |journal=Annals of Science |date=1967}} 9. ^{{harvnb|Gilbert|1893|p=79}} 10. ^Bochenski, Leslie (April 1996) "A Short History of Lunar Cartography" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803073221/http://uias.astro.illinois.edu/s-m/sm-apr-96.html |date=3 August 2010 }}. University of Illinois Astronomical Society 11. ^Whewell, William (1859) History of the Inductive Sciences. D. Appleton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vdQyAQAAMAAJ& Vol. 1]. p. 394 12. ^Gilbert, William De Magnete, Book 6, Ch. 6,7 13. ^Gilbert, William De Mundo, Book 2, Ch. 19 14. ^{{harvnb|Gilbert|1893|p=346}} 15. ^William Gilbert {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426151912/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/pioneers/gilbert.html |date=26 April 2007 }}. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory 16. ^William Gilbert (1544–1603). BBC 17. ^{{cite web|last1=Ross|first1=David|title=Colchester, Holy Trinity Church {{!}} Historic Essex Guide|url=http://www.britainexpress.com/counties/essex/churches/colchester-holy-trinity.htm|website=Britain Express|accessdate=29 October 2016}} 18. ^Park Benjamin, [https://archive.org/details/ahistoryelectri01benjgoog A History of Electricity] J. Wiley & Sons (1898) p.327-8 19. ^Thomson, Thomas (1812) [https://books.google.com/books?id=nqjjR4Qt9IgC& History of the Royal Society: from its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century]. R. Baldwin. p. 461 20. ^Whewell, William (1859) History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest to the Present Time. D. Appleton, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GNUyAQAAMAAJ& Vol. 2], p. 217 21. ^Hallam, Henry (1854) Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries. [https://books.google.com/books?id=GuATAAAAYAAJ& Vol.2]. Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 232–3 22. ^Bryant, Walter William (1920) {{ws | Kepler}}. The Macmillan Company. {{ws | p. 35}} Further reading{{Refbegin}}
External links{{commons category|William Gilbert}}{{wikiquote|William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert}}{{wikisource author}}
16 : English astronomers|16th-century English medical doctors|16th-century English writers|16th-century male writers|Magneticians|People associated with electricity|1544 births|1603 deaths|People of the Elizabethan era|16th-century Latin-language writers|Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge|People from Colchester|17th-century deaths from plague (disease)|17th-century English writers|17th-century male writers|16th-century astronomers |
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