1. Consequences of climate change
     Decoupling of ecosystems    Migration    Insect pests    Pathogen impacts    Freshwater and marine environments  

2. Prevention
     Types  

3. References

Human-influenced climate change has increased invasion of organisms through changing of ecosystems. Global warming is the increase in climate temperature due to human influences.^[1] This increase in climate temperature has a cascading effect on the plants and animals of that region. This includes an increase in CO, pH of water, and death of species. These factors could lead to physiological stress and changes of native organism in that ecosystem.^[2] Thus causing non native organism of land and sea to migrate to new areas suitable for their lifestyle or die with the once habitable environment. The migration also increases dispersal of plants into new areas. The non native plants can then invade and take over the ecosystem in which they were introduced.^[2] All of these processes combined can destroy trophies levels of that ecosystem leaving room for new organisms to invade that ecosystem.^[3]

Humans are one of the biggest influences on global warming. The biggest cause is the use of fossil fuels which creates CO that later gets trapped in the atmosphere. CO in the atmosphere then traps heat and changes the temperature of its climate. Some smaller but also meaningful human influences include, deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in vegetation. Deforestation can also release gas into the atmosphere to also trap heat.^[4][5] Urbanization is the construction of land that ultimately causes death of native species and replacement with non native species. Which can affect trophic levels in ecosystems.^[6] Lastly is shifts in vegetation. Global warming can can cause droughts in dryland, this later on can kill plants who require heavy water use from soil. It also can shift invasive species into this dryland that require water as well. Which in turn can further deplete water supply for plants of that region.^[7] All of these influences can lead to physiological stress of organism, thus increasing invasion and further destroying the native ecosystem.^[2]

Consequences of climate change

Decoupling of ecosystems

Food webs and chains are two varying ways to examine energy transfer and predation through a community. While food webs tend to be more realistic and easy to identify in environments, food chains highlight the importance of energy transfer between trophic levels.^[8] Air temperature greatly influences not only germination of vegetative species but also the foraging and reproductive habits of animal species. In either way of approaching relationships between populations, it is important to realize that species likely cannot and will not adjust to climate change in the same way or at the same rate. This phenomenon is known as ‘decoupling’ and has detrimental effects on the successful functioning of affected environments. In the Arctic, caribou calves are beginning to largely miss out on food as vegetation begins growing earlier in the season as a result of rising temperatures.^[11]

Specific examples of decoupling within an environment include the time lag between air warming and soil warming and the relationship between temperature (as well as photoperiod) and heterotrophic organisms.^[11] The former example results from the ability of soil to hold its temperature. Similar to how water has a higher specific heat than air, which results in ocean temperatures being warmest at the close of the summer season,^[9] soil temperature lags behind that of air. This results in a decoupling of above and below ground subsystems.^[11]

This affects invasion because it increase growth rates and distribution of invasive species. Invasive species typically have better tolerance to different environmental conditions increasing their survival rate when climate changes. This later translates to when species die because they can not live in that ecosystem any more. The new organisms that move in have less biodiversity to worry about and can potentially take over that ecosystem.^[10]                                                             

Migration

Higher temperatures also mean longer growing seasons for plants and animals will migrate poleward. Poleward migration also changes the migration patterns of many animals. Longer growing seasons means the time of arrival for species changes. Which changes the amount of food supply available at the time of arrival altering the species reproductive success and survival. There is also secondary effects global warming has on species such as changes in habitat, food source, and predators of that ecosystem. Which later could lead to death of species or migration to a new area sustainable for that species.^[10]

Insect pests

Insect pests have always been viewed as a nuisance, most often for their damaging effects on agriculture, parasitism of livestock, and impacts on human health.^[11] Influenced heavily by climate change and invasions, they have recently been looked at as a significant threat to both biodiversity and ecosystem functionality. Forestry industries are also at risk for being affected.^[12] There are a plethora of factors that contribute to existing concerns regarding the spread of insect pests: all of which stem from increasing air temperatures. Phenological changes, over-wintering, increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, migration, and increasing rates of population growth all impact pests’ presence, spread, and impact both directly and indirectly.^[13] Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, western corn rootworm, migrated from North America to Europe. In both continents, western corn rootworm has had significant impacts on corn production and therefore economic costs. Phenological changes and warming of air temperature have allowed this pests’ upper boundary to expand further northward. In a similar sense of decoupling, the upper and lower limits of a species’ spread is not always paired neatly with one another. Mahalanobis distance and multidimensional envelope analysis performed by Pedro Aragon and Jorge M. Lobo predict that even as the pests’ range expands northward, currently invaded European communities will remain within the pests’ favored range.^[14]

Pathogen impacts

While still limited in research scope, it is known that climate change and invasive species impact the presence of pathogens^[15] and there is evidence that global warming will increase the abundance of plant pathogens specifically. While certain weather changes will affect species differently, increased air moisture plays a significant role in the rapid outbreaks of pathogens. In the little amount of research that has been completed regarding the incidence of plant pathogens in response to climate change, the majority of the completed work focuses on above-ground pathogens. This does not mean that soil-borne pathogens are exempt from experiencing the effects of climate change. Pythium cinnmomi, a pathogen that causes oak tree decline, is a soil-borne pathogen that increased in activity in response to climate change.^[16]

Freshwater and marine environments

Barriers between marine ecosystems are typically physiological in nature as opposed to geographic (i.e. mountain ranges). These physiological barriers may be seen as changes in pH, water temperature, water turbidity, or more. Climate change and global warming have begun to affect these barriers- the most significant of which being water temperature. The warming of sea water has allowed crabs to invade Antarctica, and other durophagous predators are not far behind. As these invaders move in, species endemic to the benthic zone will have to adjust and begin to compete for resources, destroying the existing ecosystem.^[17]

Freshwater systems are significantly affected by climate change. Extinction rates within freshwater bodies of water tend to be equitable or even higher than some terrestrial organisms. While species may experience range-shifts in response to physiologic changes, outcomes are species-specific and not reliable in all organisms. As water temperatures increase, it is organisms that inhibit warmer waters that are positively affected, while cold-water organisms are negatively affected.^[18] Warmer temperature also leads to the melting of arctic ice which increase the sea level. Most photosynthesizing species because of the rise in sea water are not able to get the right amount of light to sustain living.^[10]

Prevention

Types

1. Monitoring/Early Detection: taking samples of a specific area to see if any new species are present. Then they are run through a database to see if this species is an invasive species. If confirmed to be invasive they go through a rapid response eradication method.^&91;19&93;
2. Rapid response: It can prevent the distribution and irreversible introduction of invasive species into a new habitat. This is done through several methods of eradication.
   • Manual control: this can be done through human labor. Mostly hand pulling, mulching, flooding, digging, and burning of invasive species. Burning happens mid spring to prevent further damage of the area and harm to the people administering the fire. This techniques can kill or reduce the non native species.^&91;19&93;
   • Mechanical: this requires mechanical tools to administer this kind of treatment. It is mostly mowing, hoeing, and cutting. Typically used on areas in which are safe to use the equipment on. This technique weakens the species by attacking its root reserve. This reducing its ability to grow.^&91;19&93;
   • Chemical: this requires use of chemicals to destroy the invasive species. Pesticides and herbicides are two examples of chemical treatments. It is not recommended to use this when rare species are present in the population.^&91;19&93;
   • Biological: this is the manipulation of biology to control invasive populations. Examples of this would be animals, fungi, or diseases. Each reducing growth of the species being targeted.^&91;19&93;
   • Cultural: using the environment around the species to reduce invasion. This can be cutting down trees to prevent species from harboring and growing in a tree.^&91;19&93;

References

• Catedral Primada de Bogota
• Catedral Primada Metropolitana de Santiago
• Catedral Primada Santa María de Toledo
• Catedral, San Jose, Costa Rica
• Catedral Santa María La Menor
• Catedratico
• Catedrático
• Cate Faehrmann
• Cate Faerhmann
• Cate Fowler
• Categern
• Categoriality
• Categoria Primera A
• Categoria Primera B
• Categorical abstract machine
• Categorical (disambiguation)
• Categorical framework
• Categorical Imperatives
• Categorical list of programming languages
• Categorically
• Categorical processing
• Categorical quantum mechanics
• Categorical rating
• Categorical variation
• Categories for the Description of Works of Art