“Domestication of Ficus carica”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Ficus carica, known as the common fig, is one of the earliest plants to have ever undergone domestication. Ficus carica played many important roles in history and has become a symbol in many different cultures and religions. They continue to play a significant part in the societies and economies of today, as they have proven to serve a multitude of uses.

Origins of cultivation and domestication

The exact origin of the common fig is still under debate.^[1] Some believe it to be indigenous to Western Asia and suggest that human activities then spread it throughout the Mediterranean.^[2] Despite uncertainty about its geographic origins, most archaeobotanists now agree that the domestication of the fig tree happened around 6500 years ago in the Near East.^[1] Scholars agree that the domestication of the fig tree came long before the domestication of other important fruit crops like grapes, olives, and dates.^[1] Researchers have found significant evidence of fig cultivation at many different late Neolithic and Neolithic sites^[1] along with Bronze Age, Assyrian, and Egyptian sites.^[3] But evidence for the first cultivation of figs has been found in the Lower Jordan Valley in an early Neolithic village known as Gilgal 1.^[4] This evidence dates back to the 12th millennium BP and suggests that the widespread cultivation of figs pre-dated the domestication of cereal crops by almost one thousand years.^[1]

Ficus carica specimens made ideal candidates for domestication because they are one of the most easily proliferated of all fruit trees. By simply planting a seed, or by cutting off either a limb of the fig tree or a part the fruit itself, there is the potential to grow an entirely new individual tree.^[5] The ability to produce many more plants in such a straightforward manner may have been appealing to the early consumers of figs. Fig trees can also withstand harsh, varying temperatures.^[6] This may have been attractive as well because the people would not have to worry about their plants dying every time the weather fluctuated from the norm. Along with their rigidity, Ficus carica trees produce 3 crops throughout the year,^[5] so the yield from these plants would be significantly worth the effort put into growing them. Figs also contain a large amount of sugar.^[3] Perhaps the sweetness of these fruits also played a role in their domestication, as it would have made them more desirable to the human palate.{{Citation needed|date= April 2017}}

During the domestication of fig trees, humans compromised the characteristics of the fruit and promoted evolutionary divergence from the wild ancestor of the plant. Intuitively, those growing the figs chose to let the plants with the most desirable characteristics reproduce. In this case, plants were selected towards an increase in the size of the overall fruit, not surprisingly.^[3] (The larger the fruit, the more food it provides.) Figs with various different flesh colors were also chosen so that there are now white-, amber-, red-, and purple-colored figs.^[3] The plants that produced the sweetest fruit were also selected, increasing the sugar content of the domesticated fig versus the wild fig.^[3] One of the problems faced with the harvesting of the figs, was that oftentimes the ripened fruits would split and have to be discarded. Therefore, those plants that produced fruits that did not split at maturation were considered ideal because they produced a higher, usable, crop yield. The fruits were also able to be used for different purposes as they became considerably less fragile and therefore easier to handle.^[3]

Smyrna figs

Unlike Ficus carica, which are able to reproduce without pollination, in order for Smyrna figs to reach maturity, it is important that they be pollinated by a fig wasp. Figs and fig wasps have had a symbiotic relationship throughout history.^[7] The fig wasps need the figs in order to reproduce, while the figs rely on the wasps to aid them in their pollination.^[8] If a fig goes without such pollination, it will fall off of the tree without producing the sweet fruit that gives it its value. To insure that this process occurs and that they are not left without a crop, those who raise figs around the Mediterranean help in the caprification (the process of fig pollination).^[7] They help aid this process by buying male figs, from different towns, that are already filled with fig wasps. They then string these figs together and hang them in their trees.^[7] When the fig wasps emerge, they pollinate the figs and allow them to mature. In this way, figs are reliant on human activities, which is representative of their domestication. Without human interference, they would not likely reach maturity.^[7]

In the years prior to the 1900s, a problem arose for those who grew Smyrna figs outside of the Mediterranean. Fig wasps were only found in a very small portion of the world and there was no other known way to pollinate figs.^[7] So people perfected a practice known as artificial caprification.^[7] In this process, the maturation of the figs is completely reliant on humans, for the fig wasps are entirely absent. They took male figs and broke them open, releasing their pollen. They then took toothpicks and dusted them with the pollen and proceeded to poke them into the female figs, thus artificially pollinating them and allowing them to reach maturity.^[7] This process of artificial caprification was vital to the culture of figs in California until fig wasps were eventually imported into the state from Turkey. In this case, without the close interaction with humans, these figs would have never succeeded in this part of the world.^[7]

Historical significance

Fig trees and fig fruits have many different historical references and have been incorporated into many different cultures and religions and ideals. For example, the use of fig leaves as a way to cover the more private parts of many muses to both present and historic paintings and sculptures. In this sense, the fig leaves are a representation of modesty. They serve as the only barrier between the person and the harsh outside. So perhaps they are also representative of some sort of vulnerability. There are also many references to figs within the Bible. One example being, when Adam and Eve dress themselves with fig leaves after eating the forbidden fruit. Perhaps this suggesting that the leaves serve as some form of protection. They are also present in different aspects of Greek mythology. They are, for example, known as the sacred tree to the god Dionysus, god of wine and fertility. They appear within a portion of the Qur'an that is titled “The Fig” in Arabic. It can also be found in another section of the Qur'an, in which the fig is referred to as “a fruit that descended from paradise.” In Rome, figs were thought to represent femininity, due to the appearance of the fleshy inside of the fruit. In this society, figs were meant as a way of presenting weakness. In the sense, they appeared in a much more negative light than in other cultural contexts.

Dispersal

As time went on, figs were spread from their indigenous region of Western Asia, and their comfortable home in the Mediterranean, throughout many other places around the world (of course, despite their increasing ability to grow in many different regions, the Mediterranean still remains the ideal location for the raising of figs.^[6] They migrated into Afghanistan and expanded to southern Germany and the Canary Islands.^[2] They made their way to England and then China, and eventually to Japan, South Africa, India, Australia, the United States (California to be more specific.), and of course many other places around the globe.^[2] Figs soon found themselves woven into the economy of many different countries. The production, import, and export of figs is vital in some regions. For example, in 2010, Turkey was the number one exporter and producer of figs in the world, producing around 24% of the world’s supply and exporting around 254, 838 metric tons.^[2] Egypt was the second largest producer, producing around 184,972 metric tons.^[2] Austria trailed Turkey as the second largest exporter, exporting somewhere near 6,131 metric tons.^[2] In 2009, France, Austria, and Germany were the top 3 importers of figs, with Canada trailing as number 4.^[2] The demand for figs has remained steady for many years and it looks as though it will stay that way for a while, or perhaps even increase, which would of course be good news for the countries that lead in the fig trade.^[6]

Modern uses

There are many different ways that people continue to consume fig fruits today. The most common forms of consumption are either dried, sliced, and then eaten, or dried and then made into a sticky paste which can then be used in a variety of different products.^[6] This is mostly because it is extremely hard to keep fresh figs, as they spoil within a very short amount of time. So, more often than not, if figs are to be consumed fresh then they must be eaten in the place which they are grown because they are unable to make the journey of exportation.^[6] It is for this reason that, for most of their history, around 95% of all the figs produced in the world were destined to be dried.^[6] However, despite the difficulties that they pose, the demand for fresh figs has recently greatly increased. From 2002 to 2006, the demand for fresh figs increased four-fold.^[2] Besides dried or fresh, figs are also sometimes canned and used in pastries and, although it is not commonly known, they can even be fermented and distilled into alcohol.^[3] It many places in the world, it is common to grind up the figs that either do not meet standards, or rot before they can be consumed, in order to make a sort of animal feed.^[6]

Origins of cultivation and domestication

Smyrna figs

Historical significance

Dispersal

Modern uses

See also

References