| 词条 | Draft:Modern forms of enclosure |
| 释义 |
Enclosure in the narrower sense was the historical process of fencing communally owned land in England. But enclosure is not merely a historical phenomenon, it is still ongoing today and an inevitable necessity in the capitalist economic system. Whereas in Marxist literature, primitive accumulation is described as just a pre-history of capitalism, it is in fact going on until the present day.[1] Opening up new markets also through dispossession of communities of their means of living is part of the necessary expansion of the capitalist market to overcome possible crises of overaccumulation. Such dispossession or new enclosures are not just needed for finding new possibilities to invest surplus value and gain access to resources, at the same time, the dispossessing of communities is a necessary prerequisite for the integration of people into the market system. Through the separation from their means of living, formerly self-sufficient communities become part of the capitalist system as labourers and consumers. Like in the past, today new enclosures are not often realized without resistance.[2] Ongoing enclosure takes various forms. De Angelis[3] distinguishes based on various forms of commons the following types of enclosure:
Land grabbing Land grabbing is one severe example of land enclosure that is amplifying since the beginning of the 21st century, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa but also in Asia and Latin America . The new enclosed land is primarily used by large agrobusinesses for production of food or biofuels[4]. Also, the REDD+ mechanism Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, can accelerate new enclosures by dispossessing local communities from their customary rights to the use of forests [https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/protecting-carbon-to-destroy-forests-land-enclosures-and-redd]. Community managed water provision systems are also often threatened by enclosure, see also water commons and water privatization Water privatization. The enclosure of urban spaces includes amongst other things road construction, the commercialization of squares and gated communities[5]. By enclosure of social commons the appropriation of social security systems or other achievements from past social movements by privatization and structural adjustment programs is understood[6]. Applying intellectual property rights to genes is a form of enclosure of life. This involves often the appropriation of indigenous knowledge commons . Data, information and content that is collectively owned and managed by a community of users is typically referred to as the knowledge commons. Enclosure of such commons is particularly frequent in the digital realm, in particular over the internet. Digital Rights Management (DRM) is a symbol for enclosure by means of technology. It allows the proprietor to artificially limit the capacity of common users to share or reproduce digital content. By means of its access control technologies, it enforces the copyright regime in the name of intellectual property protection. DRM is a tool used by major corporations in the entertainment industry that use the technology to create scarcity of an otherwise abundant digital resource. It restricts the users' ability to freely use their purchased movies, e-books, games, music, literature, software, and hardware in ways they are accustomed to with ordinary non-restricted media. Commoning movements resist and fight these enclosures. Also, new conceptualizations of commons such as Queer Commons challenge enclosure along lines of gender, class, ethnicity and sexuality. References1. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.commoner.org.uk/02bonefeld.pdf|title=The Permanence of Primitive Accumulation: Commodity Fetishism and Social Constitution|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}} 2. ^{{Cite web|url=http://wealthofthecommons.org/essay/global-land-grab-new-enclosures|title=The Global Land Grab: The New Enclosures|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}} 3. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/648629020|title=The beginning of history : value struggles and global capital|last=(Massimo),|first=De Angelis, M.|isbn=9781783716579|location=London|oclc=648629020}} 4. ^{{Cite journal|last=White|first=Ben|last2=Borras Jr.|first2=Saturnino M.|last3=Hall|first3=Ruth|last4=Scoones|first4=Ian|last5=Wolford|first5=Wendy|date=2012-05-28|title=The new enclosures: critical perspectives on corporate land deals|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2012.691879|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=39|issue=3-4|pages=619–647|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.691879|issn=0306-6150}} 5. ^{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/919187009|title=Common space : the city as commons|last=author.|first=Stavrides, Stavros,|isbn=9781783603282|oclc=919187009}} 6. ^{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/648629020|title=The beginning of history : value struggles and global capital|last=author.|first=De Angelis, M. (Massimo),|isbn=9781783716579|oclc=648629020}} |
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