“Zora Neale Hurston”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Zora Neale Hurston (January 7, 1891^[1]^[2] – January 28, 1960) was an influential author of African-American literature and anthropologist, who portrayed racial struggles in the early 20th century American South, and published research on Haitian voodoo.^[3] Of Hurston's four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, and essays, her most popular is the 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God.

Hurston was born in Notasulga, Alabama, and moved to Eatonville, Florida, with her family in 1894. Eatonville would become the setting for many of her stories and is now the site of the Zora! Festival, held each year in Hurston's honor.^[4] In her early career, Hurston conducted anthropological and ethnographic research while attending Barnard College.^[5] While in New York she became a central figure of the Harlem Renaissance. Her short satires, drawing from the African-American experience and racial division, were published in anthologies such as The New Negro and Fire!!^[6] After moving back to Florida, Hurston published her literary anthropology on African-American folklore in North Florida, Mules and Men (1935) and her first three novels: Jonah's Gourd Vine (1934); Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937); and Moses, Man of the Mountain (1939). Also published during this time was Tell My Horse: Voodoo and Life in Haiti and Jamaica (1938), documenting her research on rituals in Jamaica and Haiti.

Hurston's works touched on the African-American experience and her struggles as an African-American woman. Her novels went relatively unrecognized by the literary world for decades, but interest revived after author Alice Walker published "In Search of Zora Neale Hurston" in the March 1975 issue of Ms. Magazine. Hurston's manuscript Every Tongue Got to Confess (2001), a collection of folktales gathered in the 1920s, was published posthumously after being discovered in the Smithsonian archives. Her nonfiction book Barracoon was published posthumously in 2018.

Biography

Early life

Hurston was the sixth of eight children of John Hurston and Lucy Ann Hurston (née Potts). All of her four grandparents had been born into slavery. Her father was a Baptist preacher and sharecropper, who later became a carpenter, and her mother was a school teacher. She was born in Notasulga, Alabama, on January 7, 1891, where her father grew up and her grandfather was the preacher of a Baptist church.^[7]^[8]

When she was three, her family moved to Eatonville, Florida. In 1887 it was one of the first all-black towns incorporated in the United States.^[9] Hurston said that Eatonville was "home" to her as she grew up there, and sometimes claimed it as her birthplace.^[10] Her father was elected as mayor of the town in 1897 and in 1902 became minister of its largest church, Macedonia Missionary Baptist.

As an adult, Hurston used Eatonville as a backdrop in her stories. It was a place where African Americans could live as they desired, independent of white society. In 1901, some northern schoolteachers visited Eatonville and gave Hurston a number of books that opened her mind to literature. She described it as a kind of "birth".^[11] Hurston spent the remainder of her childhood in Eatonville, and described the experience of growing up there in her 1928 essay, "How It Feels To Be Colored Me".

In 1904, Hurston's mother died. Her father remarried to Mattie Moge which was considered scandalous, as it was rumored that he had had relations with Moge before his first wife's death.^[12] Hurston's father and stepmother sent her to a Baptist boarding school in Jacksonville, Florida. They eventually stopped paying her tuition and she was dismissed. She later worked as a maid to the lead singer in a traveling Gilbert & Sullivan theatrical company.^[13]

In 1917, Hurston began attending Morgan College, the high school division of Morgan State University, a historically black college in Baltimore, Maryland. At this time, apparently to qualify for a free high-school education (as well, perhaps to reflect her literary birth), the 26-year-old Hurston began claiming 1901 as her year of birth.^[13] She graduated from the high school of Morgan State University in 1918.^[14]

College

In 1918, Hurston began her studies at Howard University, where she became one of the earliest initiates of Zeta Phi Beta sorority and co-founded The Hilltop, the university's student newspaper.^[15] While there, she took courses in Spanish, English, Greek and public speaking and earned an associate degree in 1920.^[16] In 1921, she wrote a short story, "John Redding Goes to Sea", which qualified her to become a member of Alaine Locke's literary club, The Stylus. Hurston left Howard in 1924 and in 1925 was offered a scholarship by Barnard trustee Annie Nathan Meyer^[17] to Barnard College of Columbia University, where she was the college's sole black student.^[18] Hurston received her B.A. in anthropology in 1928, when she was 37. While she was at Barnard, she conducted ethnographic research with noted anthropologist Franz Boas of Columbia University. She also worked with Ruth Benedict as well as fellow anthropology student Margaret Mead.^[19] After graduating from Barnard, Hurston spent two years as a graduate student in anthropology at Columbia University.^[20] Living in Harlem in the 1920s, Hurston befriended the likes of Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen, among several others. Her apartment, according to some accounts, was a popular spot for social gatherings. Around this time, Hurston experienced a few early literary successes, including placing in short-story and playwriting contests in Opportunity magazine.

Adulthood

In 1927, Hurston married Herbert Sheen, a jazz musician and a former teacher at Howard who later became a physician. Their marriage ended in 1931. In 1935, Hurston was involved with Percy Punter, a graduate student at Columbia University, who would eventually inspire Teacake in Their Eyes Were Watching God.^[21]^[22] In 1939, while Hurston was working for the WPA, she married Albert Price. The marriage ended after seven months.^[18] They divorced in 1943 and the following year Hurston married James Howell Pitts of Cleveland. That marriage, too, lasted less than a year.^[23]^[24]

She lived in a cottage in Eau Gallie, Florida, twice: once in 1929 and again in 1951.^[25] During the 1930s, Hurston was a resident of Westfield, New Jersey, where Langston Hughes was among her neighbors.^[26]^[27]^[28] In 1934 she established a school of dramatic arts "based on pure Negro expression" at Bethune-Cookman University (at the time, Bethune-Cookman College), a historically black college in Daytona Beach, Florida.^[29]

In later life, in addition to continuing her literary career, Hurston served on the faculty of North Carolina College for Negroes (now North Carolina Central University) in Durham, North Carolina.^[20]

Legacy and honors

In 1956 Hurston received the Bethune-Cookman College Award for Education and Human Relations in recognition of her achievements. The English Department at Bethune-Cookman College remains dedicated to preserving her cultural legacy.^[30]

Anthropological and folkloric fieldwork

Hurston traveled extensively in the Caribbean and the American South and immersed herself in local cultural practices to conduct her anthropological research. Based on her work in the South, sponsored from 1928 to 1932 by Charlotte Osgood Mason,^[31] a wealthy philanthropist, Hurston wrote Mules and Men in 1935. She was doing research in lumber camps and commented on the practice of white men in power taking black women as sexual concubines, including having them bear children. This later was referred to as "paramour rights," based in the men's power under racial and related to practices during slavery times. The book also includes much folklore. She used this material as well in fictional treatment developed for her novels such as Jonah's Gourd Vine (1934).^[32]

In 1936 and 1937, Hurston traveled to Jamaica and Haiti for research, with support from the Guggenheim Foundation. She drew from this for her anthropological work, Tell My Horse (1938).

In 1938, Hurston worked for the Federal Writer's project (FWP).^[33] Hired for her experience as a writer and folklorist she gathered information to add to Florida's historical and cultural collection.^[33]

From October 1947 to February 1948, she lived in Honduras, at the north coastal town of Puerto Cortés. She had some hopes of locating either Mayan ruins or vestiges of an as yet undiscovered civilization.^[34] While in Puerto Cortés, she wrote much of Seraph on the Suwanee, set in Florida. Hurston expressed interest in the polyethnic nature of the population in the region (many, such as the Miskito Zambu and Garifuna, were of partial African ancestry and had developed creole cultures).

During her last decade, Hurston worked as a freelance writer for magazines and newspapers. In the fall of 1952 she was contacted by Sam Nunn, editor of the Pittsburgh Courier, to go to Florida to cover the murder trial of Ruby McCollum. McCollum was charged with murdering a white doctor and politician, who McCollum said had forced her to have sex and bear his child.^[35] Hurston recalled what she had seen of white male sexual dominance in the lumber camps in North Florida, and discussed it with Nunn. They both thought the case might be about such "paramour rights," and wanted to "expose it to a national audience."^[35]

Upon reaching Live Oak, Hurston was surprised not only by the gag order the judge in the trial placed on the defense, but by her inability to get residents in town to talk about the case; both blacks and whites were silent. She believed that might have been related to Dr. Adams' alleged involvement as well in Sam McCollum's gambling operation. Her articles were published by the newspaper during the trial. Ruby McCollum was convicted by an all-white, all-male jury, and sentenced to death. Hurston had a special assignment to write a serialized account, The Life Story of Ruby McCollum, over three months in 1953 in the newspaper.^[36] Her part was ended abruptly when she and Nunn disagreed about her pay, and she left.^[35]

Unable to pay independently to return for the appeal and second trial, she contacted journalist William Bradford Huie, with whom she had worked at The American Mercury, to try to interest him in the case. He covered the appeal and second trial, and also developed material from a background investigation. Hurston shared her material with him from the first trial, but he acknowledged her only briefly in his book, Woman in the Suwannee Jail (1956), which became a bestseller.^[37] Hurston celebrated that "McCollum's testimony in her own defense marked the first time that a woman of African-American descent was allowed to testify as to the paternity of her child by a white man. Hurston firmly believed that Ruby McCollum's testimony sounded the death toll of 'paramour rights' in the Segregationist South."^[35]

Among other positions, Hurston later worked at the Pan American World Airways Technical Library at Patrick Air Force Base in 1957. She was fired for being "too well-educated" for her job.^[38]

She moved to Fort Pierce. Taking jobs where she could find them, she worked occasionally as a substitute teacher. At age 60, Hurston had to fight "to make ends meet" with the help of public assistance. At one point she worked as a maid on Miami Beach's Rivo Alto Island

Death

During a period of financial and medical difficulties, Hurston was forced to enter St. Lucie County Welfare Home, where she suffered a stroke. She died of hypertensive heart disease on January 28, 1960, and was buried at the Garden of Heavenly Rest in Fort Pierce, Florida. Her remains were in an unmarked grave until 1973. Novelist Alice Walker and fellow Hurston scholar Charlotte D. Hunt found an unmarked grave in the general area where Hurston had been buried and decided to mark it as hers.^[39] Walker had it marked with a gray marker stating ZORA NEALE HURSTON / A GENIUS OF THE SOUTH / NOVELIST FOLKLORIST / ANTHROPOLOGIST / 1901–1960.^[40] The line "a genius of the south" is from Jean Toomer's poem Georgia Dusk, which appears in his book Cane.^[40] Hurston was actually born in 1891, not 1901.^[1]^[2]

After Hurston died her papers were ordered to be burned. A law officer and friend, Patrick DuVal, passing by the house where she had lived, stopped and put out the fire, thus saving an invaluable collection of literary documents for posterity. The nucleus of this collection was given to the University of Florida libraries in 1961 by Mrs. Marjorie Silver, friend and neighbor of Hurston. Other materials were donated in 1970 and 1971 by Frances Grover, daughter of E. O. Grover, a Rollins College professor and long-time friend of Hurston's. In 1979 Stetson Kennedy of Jacksonville, who knew Hurston through his work with the Federal Writers Project, added additional papers. [(Zora Neale Hurston Papers, University of Florida Smathers Libraries, August 2008)]

Literary career

1920s

When Hurston arrived in New York City in 1925, the Harlem Renaissance was at its zenith, and she soon became one of the writers at its center. Shortly before she entered Barnard, Hurston's short story "Spunk" was selected for The New Negro, a landmark anthology of fiction, poetry, and essays focusing on African and African-American art and literature.^[41] In 1926, a group of young black writers including Hurston, Langston Hughes, and Wallace Thurman, calling themselves the Niggerati, produced a literary magazine called Fire!! that featured many of the young artists and writers of the Harlem Renaissance.

In 1927 Hurston interviewed Cudjoe Kazzola Lewis, of Africatown, Alabama, who was the last known survivor of the Transatlantic slave trade. The next year she published the article "Cudjoe's Own Story of the Last African Slaver" (1928). According to her biographer Robert E. Hemenway, this piece largely plagiarized the work of Emma Roche,^[42] although Hurston added information about daily life in Lewis' home village of Bantè.^[43] In 1928 Hurston returned with additional resources; she conducted more interviews, took photographs, and recorded the only known film footage of an African who had been trafficked to the United States through the slave trade. Based on this material, she wrote a manuscript, Barracoon, which Hemenway described as "a highly dramatic, semifictionalized narrative intended for the popular reader."^[44]^[45] After this round of interviews, Hurston's literary patron, philanthropist Charlotte Osgood Mason, learned of Lewis and began to send him money for his support.^[45] Lewis was also interviewed by journalists for local and national publications.^[46] Hurston's manuscript Barracoon was eventually published posthumously on May 8, 2018.^[47]^[48] "Barracoon", or barracks in Spanish, is where captured Africans were temporarily imprisoned before being shipped abroad.^[48]

In 1929, Hurston moved to Eau Gallie, Florida where she wrote Mules and Men, which was published in 1935.^[49]

1930s

By the mid-1930s, Hurston had published several short stories and the critically acclaimed Mules and Men (1935), a groundbreaking work of "literary anthropology" documenting African-American folklore from timber camps in North Florida. In 1930, she collaborated with Langston Hughes on Mule Bone: A Comedy of Negro Life in Three Acts, a play that they never staged. It was published posthumously and staged on Broadway in 1991.^[20]

Hurston translated her anthropological work into the performing arts, and her folk revue, The Great Day, which featured authentic African song and dance, premiered at the John Golden Theatre in New York in January 1932. There was only one performance of The Great Day, despite the positive reviews. The Broadway debut left Hurston in $600 worth of debt. No producers wanted to move forward with a full run of the show.

During the 1930s, Zora Neale Hurston produced two other musical revues, From Sun to Sun, which was a revised adaptation of The Great Day, and Singing Steel. Hurston had a strong belief that folk should be dramatized.

Hurston's first three novels were published in the 1930s: Jonah's Gourd Vine (1934); Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), written during her fieldwork in Haiti and considered her masterwork; and Moses, Man of the Mountain (1939).

In 1937, Hurston was awarded a prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship to conduct ethnographic research in Jamaica and Haiti. Tell My Horse (1938) documents her account of her fieldwork studying spiritual and cultural rituals in Jamaica and vodoun in Haiti.

1940s and 1950s

In the 1940s, Hurston's work was published in such periodicals as The American Mercury and The Saturday Evening Post. Her last published novel, Seraph on the Suwanee, notable principally for its focus on white characters, was published in 1948. It explores images of "white trash" women. Jackson (2000) argues that Hurston's meditation on abjection, waste, and the construction of class and gender identities among poor whites reflects the eugenics discourses of the 1920s.^[50]

In 1952, Hurston was assigned by the Pittsburgh Courier to cover the small-town murder trial of Ruby McCollum, the prosperous black wife of the local bolita racketeer, who had killed a racist white doctor. She also contributed to Ruby McCollum: Woman in the Suwannee Jail (1956), a book by journalist and civil rights advocate William Bradford Huie.

Posthumous publications

Hurston's manuscript Every Tongue Got to Confess (2001), a collection of folktales gathered in the 1920s, was published posthumously after being discovered in the Smithsonian archives.

In 2008, The Library of America selected excerpts from Ruby McCollum: Woman in the Suwannee Jail (1956), to which Hurston had contributed, for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American true crime writing.

Hurston's nonfiction book Barracoon was published in 2018.^[48] A barracoon is a type of barracks where slaves were imprisoned before being taken overseas.^[48]

Public obscurity

Hurston's work slid into obscurity for decades, for both cultural and political reasons.

Many readers objected to the representation of African-American dialect in Hurston's novels, given the racially charged history of dialect fiction in American literature. Her stylistic choices in dialogue were influenced by her academic experiences. Thinking like a folklorist, Hurston strove to represent speech patterns of the period which she documented through ethnographic research.^[51] For example, a character in Jonah's Gourd Vine expresses herself like this:

Several of Hurston's literary contemporaries criticized her use of dialect as a caricature of African-American culture rooted in a racist tradition. These writers associated with the Harlem Renaissance were critical of Hurston's later work, which in their view did not further the movement. One criticism came from Richard Wright in his review of Their Eyes Were Watching God:

More recently, many critics have praised Hurston's skillful use of idiomatic speech.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

During the 1930s and 1940s when her work was published, the pre-eminent African-American author was Richard Wright.^[53] Unlike Hurston, Wright wrote in explicitly political terms, as someone who had become disenchanted with communism, using the struggle of African Americans for respect and economic advancement as both the setting and the motivation for his work. Other popular African-American authors of the time, such as Ralph Ellison, dealt with the same concerns as Wright.

Hurston, who was a conservative, was on the other side of the disputes over the promise left-wing politics held for African-Americans.^[54] In 1951, for example, Hurston argued that New Deal economic support created a harmful dependency by African Americans on the government, and that this dependency ceded too much power to politicians.^[55]

Despite increasing difficulties, Hurston maintained her independence and a determined optimism. She wrote in a 1957 letter:

Posthumous recognition

Politics

John McWhorter has called Hurston "America's favorite black conservative"^[77]^[78] while David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito have argued that she can better be characterized as a libertarian. She was a Republican who was generally sympathetic to the foreign policy non-interventionism of the Old Right and a fan of Booker T. Washington's self-help politics. She disagreed with the philosophies (including Communism and the New Deal) supported by many of her colleagues in the Harlem Renaissance, such as Langston Hughes, who was in the 1930s a supporter of the Soviet Union and praised it in several of his poems. Despite much common ground with the Old Right in domestic and foreign policy, Hurston was not a social conservative. Her writings show an affinity for feminist individualism. In this respect, her views were similar to two libertarian novelists who were her contemporaries: Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson.^[79] Although her personal quotes show a disbelief of religion, Hurston did not negate spiritual matters as evidenced from her 1942 autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road.

In 1952, Hurston supported the presidential campaign of Senator Robert A. Taft. Like Taft, Hurston was against Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies. She also shared his opposition to Roosevelt and Truman's interventionist foreign policy. In the original draft of her autobiography, Dust Tracks on a Road, Hurston compared the United States government to a "fence" in stolen goods and to a Mafia-like protection racket. Hurston thought it ironic that the same "people who claim that it is a noble thing to die for freedom and democracy ... wax frothy if anyone points out the inconsistency of their morals ... We, too, consider machine gun bullets good laxatives for heathens who get constipated with toxic ideas about a country of their own." She was scathing about those who sought "freedoms" for those abroad but denied it to people in their home countries: Roosevelt "can call names across an ocean" for his Four Freedoms, but he did not have "the courage to speak even softly at home."^[81] When Truman dropped the atomic bombs on Japan she called him "the Butcher of Asia."^[79]

Hurston opposed the Supreme Court ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case of 1954. She felt that if separate schools were truly equal (and she believed that they were rapidly becoming so), educating black students in physical proximity to white students would not result in better education. In addition, she worried about the demise of black schools and black teachers as a way to pass on cultural tradition to future generations of African Americans. She voiced this opposition in a letter, "Court Order Can't Make the Races Mix", that was published in the Orlando Sentinel in August 1955. Hurston had not reversed her long-time opposition to segregation. Rather, she feared that the Court's ruling could become a precedent for an all-powerful federal government to undermine individual liberty on a broad range of issues in the future.^[82]^[83] Hurston also opposed preferential treatment for African-Americans, saying:

Criticism

Darwin Turner, an English professor and specialist in African-American literature, faulted Hurston in 1971 for opposing integration and for opposing programs to guarantee blacks the right to work.^[84] Even though criticized, Hurston appeared to oppose integration based on pride and her sense of independence. She would not "bow low before the white man," and claimed "adequate Negro schools" already existed in 1955.^[85]

Other authors criticized Hurston for her sensationalist representation of voodoo.^[86] In The Crisis magazine in 1943, Harold Preece criticized Hurston for her perpetuation of "Negro primitivism" in order to advance her own literary career.^[87] The Journal of Negro History complained that her work on voodoo was an indictment of African-American ignorance and superstition.^[88]

Jeffrey Anderson states that Hurston's research methods were questionable, and that she fabricated material for her works on voodoo. He observed that she admitted inventing dialogue for her book Mules and Men in a letter to Ruth Benedict and described fabricating the Mules and Men story of rival voodoo doctors as a child in her later autobiography. Anderson believes that many of Hurston's other claims in her voodoo writings are dubious as well.^[89]

Several authors have contended that Hurston engaged in significant plagiarism in at least three works, claiming the article "Cudjo's own story of the last African slaver" was only 25% original, the rest being plagiarized,^[90] and that she also plagiarized much of her work on voodoo.^[91]

Selected bibliography

Film, television and radio

See also

References

Notes

1. ^¹{{cite book |last=Boyd |first=Valerie |title=Wrapped in Rainbows: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2003 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-84230-1 |page=17 }}
2. ^¹{{cite book |last=Hurston |first=Lucy Anne |title=Speak, So You Can Speak Again: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2004 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-49375-8 |page=5 }}
3. ^{{Cite journal|last=Trefzer|first=Annette|date=2000|title=Possessing the Self: Caribbean Identities in Zora Neale Hurston's Tell My Horse|url=|journal=African American Review|volume=34.2|page=299|via=}}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.zorafestival.org|title=ZORA! Festival|website=ZORA! Festival|language=English|access-date=2017-06-21}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://social.rollins.edu/wpsites/mosaic-hurston/2011/07/12/the-upbringing-and-education-of-zora-neale-hurston/|title=The Upbringing and Education of Zora Neale Hurston @ Project Mosaic: Hurston|website=social.rollins.edu|language=English|access-date=2017-06-21}}
6. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.chronicle.com/article/The-Newly-Complicated-Zora/125753|title=The Newly Complicated Zora Neale Hurston|last=Carpio|first=Glenda R.|date=2011-01-02|work=The Chronicle of Higher Education|access-date=2017-06-21|last2=Sollors|first2=Werner|language=English|issn=0009-5982}}
7. ^{{cite book |last=Boyd |first=Valerie |title=Wrapped in Rainbows: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2003 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-84230-1 |pages=14–17, 439–440 }}
8. ^{{cite book |last=Hurston |first=Lucy Anne |title=Speak, So You Can Speak Again: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2004 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-49375-8 |page=8 }}
9. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/29/us/29florida.html|title=In a Town Apart, the Pride and Trials of Black Life|date=September 28, 2008|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=August 1, 2018}}
10. ^Boyd, Rainbows, p. 25.
11. ^Sharon L. Jones, A Critical Companion to Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Reference to her Life and Work (New York: Facts on File, 2009), pp. 3–4
12. ^Boyd, Rainbows, p. 52.
13. ^¹Zora Neale Hurston {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416185654/http://www.zoranealehurston.com/biography.html |date=April 16, 2009 }}, Zora Neale Hurston official website, maintained by the Zora Neale Hurston Estate and Harper Collins.
14. ^Zora Neale Hurston {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212193528/http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/hurs-zor.htm |date=December 12, 2007 }}, Women in History.
15. ^Shivonne Foster, Following Footsteps: Zora Neale Hurston {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124012428/http://media.www.thehilltoponline.com/media/storage/paper590/news/2007/11/20/Campus/Following.Footsteps.Zora.Neale.Hurston-3112139.shtml |date=November 24, 2007 }}, The Hilltop, November 20, 2007.
16. ^Jones, Critical Companion, p. 4.
17. ^{{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Annie Nathan|title=It's Been Fun: An Autobiography|year=1951|publisher=H. Schuman|location=New York}}
18. ^¹Cheryl A. Wall, Oxfordreference.com, William L. Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (eds), The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online.
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/rothschild/cent_anth/early.html|title=A Century of Barnard Anthropology, The Early Period|publisher=|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114101102/http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/rothschild/cent_anth/early.html|archivedate=January 14, 2009|df=mdy-all}}
20. ^¹²Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Hurston, Zora Neale, February 18, 2009.
21. ^{{cite web|title=Folk Heroine|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/2003/01/12/folk-heroine/2a4a1c03-09a2-4cd0-8c2f-fba1b5b1169e/|publisher=Washington Post|date=January 12, 2003|accessdate=August 1, 2018}}
22. ^{{cite web|title=Chronology of Hurston's Life|url=https://chdr.cah.ucf.edu/hurstonarchive/?p=chronology|publisher=Zora Neale Hurston Digital Archive|accessdate=August 1, 2018}}
23. ^{{cite book |last=Hurston |first=Lucy Anne |title=Speak, So You Can Speak Again: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2004 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-49375-8 |page=27 }}
24. ^{{cite book |last=Boyd |first=Valerie |title=Wrapped in Rainbows: The Life of Zora Neale Hurston |year=2003 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-84230-1 |page=373 }}
25. ^{{Cite news | first=Megan K. | last=Scott | title=Hurston's real home | url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20110309/LIFE/303090002/Zora-Neale-Hurston-s-real-home-Brevard-County| newspaper=Florida Today | location=Melbourne, Florida | pages= 1D | date=March 6, 2011 }}
26. ^"Mule Bone: Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston's Dream Deferred of an African-American Theatre of the Black Word", African American Review, 22 March 2001. Accessed 5 March 2011. "In February 1930, Hurston headed north, settling in Westfield, New Jersey. Godmother Mason (Mrs. Rufus Osgood Mason, their white protector) had selected Westfield, safely removed from the distractions of New York City, as a suitable place for both Hurston and Hughes to work."
27. ^{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Yuval |date=March 25, 2019 |title=Zora and Langston |url=https://www.amazon.com/Zora-Langston-Story-Friendship-Betrayal/dp/0393243915|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393243918}}
28. ^Horner, Shirley. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE5DE123CF935A25751C0A960948260 "About Books"], The New York Times, February 16, 1986. Accessed March 5, 2011. "Dr. Lewis said that his research 'points out that, thanks to Mrs. Mason's generosity, Hughes lived in the early 1930s in a one-family house in Westfield, where his neighbor was another of Harlem's luminaries, Zora Neale Hurston.'"
29. ^Porter, Jump at de Sun: The Story of Zora Neale Hurston, p. 66.
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://zoranealehurston.com/about/timeline/|title=Zora Neale Hurston|first=The Estate of Zora Neale|last=Hurston|publisher=}}
31. ^Boyd, Rainbows, p. 157.
32. ^Boyd, Rainbows, pp. 246–47.
33. ^¹{{Cite book|title=Wrapped in rainbows : the life of Zora Neale Hurston|last=Valerie.|first=Boyd|date=2003|publisher=Scribner|isbn=978-0684842301|location=New York|oclc=48951437}}
34. ^Boyd, Rainbows, pp. 375–87.
35. ^¹²³Dr. C. Arthur Ellis, "New Florida-based Movie on Ruby McCollum Story Underscores Need for Black History Month", PR Web, 5 January 2011, accessed 18 March 2014
36. ^Hurston, Zora Neale. Series of articles covering the trial: Pittsburgh Courier, October 1952-January 1953. Also, "The Life Story Of Ruby McCollum", Pittsburgh Courier, Jan-March 1953
37. ^[https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14694 Elizabeth Boyd, "Disquiet", Review of Tammy Evans, The Silencing of Ruby McCollum: Race, Class, and Gender in the South], H-Net Review, July 2008, accessed 18 March 2014
38. ^{{Cite news | first=Ben | last=Brotemarkle | title=Zora Neale Hurston fond of writing in Eau Gallie cottage | url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20140204/NEWS01/302040022/Florida-Frontiers-Zora-Neale-Hurston-fond-writing-Eau-Gallie-cottage| work= | newspaper=Florida Today | location=Melbourne, Florida| pages= 9A | date=February 4, 2014 | id= | accessdate=February 4, 2014}}
39. ^"Charlotte Hunt, renewed interest in author Hurston," Tallahassee Democrat, 25 March 25, 1997
40. ^¹{{cite book|author=Deborah G. Plant|title=Zora Neale Hurston: A Biography of the Spirit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZfcDixewEYC&pg=PA57|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-98751-0|pages=57–}}
41. ^Richard A. Long, "New Negro, The", in William L. Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (eds), The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxfordreference.com
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43. ^{{Cite journal|last=Hurston|first=Zora Neale|date=October 1927|title=Cudjoe's Own Story of the Last African Slaver|url=|journal=Journal of Negro History|volume=12|pages=648–663|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}
44. ^Hemenway, Zora Neale Hurston, pp. 100-101.
45. ^¹Diouf, Sylviane A. 2007. Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Slave Ship Clotilde and the Story of the Last Africans Brought to America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 225.
46. ^Diouf, Sylviane A. 2007. Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Slave Ship Clotilde and the Story of the Last Africans Brought to America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 226.
47. ^{{cite web|last1=Little|first1=Becky|title=The Last Slave Ship Survivor Gave an Interview in the 1930s. It Just Surfaced|url=https://www.history.com/news/zora-neale-hurston-barracoon-slave-clotilda-survivor|website=History|publisher=History|accessdate=8 May 2018}}
48. ^¹²³{{cite web|author=Halle Kiefer |url=http://www.vulture.com/2017/12/new-zora-neale-hurston-book-to-be-published-in-2018.html |title=New Zora Neale Hurston Book to Be Published in 2018 |publisher=Vulture.com |date=2017-12-18 |accessdate=2018-05-03}}
49. ^{{cite book|title=Indian River Journal|series=Brevard Historical Commission |first=Ben |last=Brotemarkle |date= Fall–Winter 2011}}
50. ^Chuck Jackson, "Waste and Whiteness: Zora Neale Hurston and the Politics of Eugenics", African American Review, 2000, 34(4): 639–660.
51. ^{{cite journal|last1=Duck|first1=Leigh Anne|title='Go there tuh know there': Zora Neale Hurston and the Chronotype of the Folk|journal=American Literary History|date=2001|volume=13|issue=2|pages=265–294|jstor=3054604}}
52. ^Richard Wright, "Between Laughter and Tears", The New Masses, October 5, 1937.
53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.findingdulcinea.com/features/profiles/w/richard-wright.html|title=Happy Birthday, Richard Wright, Groundbreaking Author of "Black Boy" and "Native Son"|publisher=}}
54. ^Ward, Jerry Washington Ward and Robert Butler, eds. "Zora Neale Hurston." The Richard Wright encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. 2008.
55. ^Olasky, Marvin, "History turned right side up". WORLD magazine. February 13, 2010, p. 22.
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://inthesetimes.com/article/7077/zora_neale_hurstons_lost_decade|title=Zora Neale Hurston's Lost Decade|first=Eve|last=Ottenberg|date=April 8, 2011|publisher=|via=In These Times}}
57. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.zoranealehurstonfestival.com/|title=Zora Neale Hurston Festival – Festival of Arts and Humanities|publisher=}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.zorafestival.org|title=Zora! Festival|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}
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60. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.urchinmovement.com/2013/02/05/a-headstone-for-an-aunt-how-alice-walker-found-zora-neale-hurston/|title=A Headstone for an Aunt: How Alice Walker Found Zora Neale Hurston - The Urchin Movement|website=www.urchinmovement.com}}
61. ^{{cite web|title=Zora Dust Tracks Heritage Marker 4|url=http://www.stlucieco.gov/zora/zora_marker_4.htm|website=Dust Tracks Heritage Trail|publisher=St. Lucie County Online|accessdate=14 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802231206/http://stlucieco.gov/zora/zora_marker_4.htm|archive-date=August 2, 2014|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}
62. ^{{cite news|last1=Grosvenor|first1=Vertamae|title=Intersections: Crafting a Voice for Black Culture|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1849395|accessdate=14 June 2014|work=National Public Radio|date=26 April 2004}}
63. ^{{cite web|title=Archaeology of a Classic: Celebrating Zora Neale Hurston '28|url=http://barnard.edu/news/archaeology-classic-celebrating-zora-neale-hurston-28|website=News & Events|publisher=Barnard College|accessdate=June 14, 2014|date=December 12, 2012}}
64. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/powerprose/hurston/|title=Do You Speak American . Sea to Shining Sea . Power of Prose . Hurston {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2017-06-21}}
65. ^{{cite web|url=https://barnard.edu/news/archaeology-classic-celebrating-zora-neale-hurston-28|title=Archaeology of a Classic: Celebrating Zora Neale Hurston '28 {{!}} Barnard College|website=barnard.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-06-21}}
66. ^[https://www.womenofthehall.org/inductee/zora-neale-hurston/ National Women's Hall of Fame, Zora Neale Hurston]
67. ^Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. {{ISBN|1-57392-963-8}}.
68. ^{{cite news|title=Conference Celebrates Legacy of Zora Neale Hurston|url=http://www.barnard.edu/newnews/news101003.html|accessdate=14 June 2014|work=Barnard News Center|publisher=Barnard College|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604070224/http://www.barnard.edu/newnews/news101003.html|archivedate=June 4, 2004 }}
69. ^{{cite web|last1=Walker|first1=Alice|title=Finding a World that I Thought Was Lost: Zora Neale Hurston and the People She Looked at Very Hard and Loved Very Much|url=http://sfonline.barnard.edu/hurston/walker_01.htm|website=S&F Online|publisher=Barnard College|accessdate=7 July 2014}}
70. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ala.org/rusa/awards/znh |title=The Zora Neale Hurston Award |publisher=American Library Association |accessdate=July 30, 2016 }}
71. ^Anika Myers Palm (January 7, 2014). "Google doodle honors Eatonville's Zora Neale Hurston". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 7, 2014.
72. ^{{cite web |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57616830-93/google-bestows-author-zora-neale-hurston-her-own-doodle/?part=rss&subj=news&tag=title |title=Google bestows author Zora Neale Hurston her own doodle |last1=Kerr |first1=Dara |date=7 Jan 2014 |website=CNET |publisher= |accessdate=7 January 2014}}
73. ^{{cite news|last1=Staff report|title=Rick Bragg, Harper Lee will be among Alabama Writers' Forum's inductees|publisher=Tuscaloosa News|date=May 25, 2015}}
74. ^{{cite news|last1=Davis|first1=Rachaell|title=Why Is August 28 So Special To Black People? Ava DuVernay Reveals All In New NMAAHC Film|url=http://www.essence.com/2016/09/22/ava-duvernay-premiere-nmaahc|work=Essence|date=September 22, 2016}}
75. ^{{cite article |last1=Keyes |first1=Allison |title="In This Quiet Space for Contemplation, a Fountain Rains Down Calming Waters" |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/quiet-space-contemplation-fountain-rains-down-calming-waters-180964981/ |year=2017 |accessdate=March 10, 2018 }}
76. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/ava-duvernays-august-28-delves-into-just-how-monumental-that-date-is-to-black-history-in-america-10220382 |title=Ava Duvernay's 'August 28' Delves Into Just How Monumental That Date Is To Black History In America |publisher=Bustle.com |date= |accessdate=2018-08-30}}
77. ^McWhorter, John, "Thus Spake Zora", City Journal, Summer 2009.
78. ^¹McWhorter, John (2011-01-04) [https://www.theroot.com/why-zora-neale-hurston-was-a-conservative-1790862242 Why Zora Neale Hurston Was a Conservative], The Root
79. ^¹David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, "Isabel Paterson, Rose Wilder Lane, and Zora Neale Hurston on War, Race, the State, and Liberty", Independent Review 12, Spring 2008.
80. ^Freedom From Religion Foundation [https://ffrf.org/news/day/famous-freethinkers-secular-stars/spotlight/item/14128-zora-neale-hurston "Zora Neale Hurston - Freedom From Religion Foundation"]
81. ^"Seeing the World As It Is," a chapter deleted at the insistence of the original publishers of Hurston's memoir Dust Tracks on a Road, but later included in the Library of America edition edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
82. ^Zora Neale Hurston, "Court Order Can't Make the Races Mix", Orlando Sentinel, August 11, 1955.
83. ^{{cite web|url=http://archive.lewrockwell.com/epstein/epstein15.html|title=Court Order Can't Make the Races Mix by Zora Neale Hurston|publisher=}}
84. ^{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Darwin T. |title=In a Minor Chord: Three Afro-American Writers and Their Search for Identity |year=1971 |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale, Ill. |oclc=909407023 }}
85. ^Eriksen, John M. Brevard County, Florida : A Short History to 1955. Chapter 13. "Negro Writer Opposes Court Ruling", Titusville Star Advocate, September 30, 1955, p. 2.
86. ^H. I. Brock, New York Times Book Review.
87. ^Preece, Harold, "The Negro Folk Cult", Crisis, v. 43, no. 12, December 1936.
88. ^B. C. McNeil, Journal of Negro History 21 (1936) 225.
89. ^Jeffrey Anderson, "Voodoo" in Black and White, in Frank & Killbride (eds), Southern Character, 2011.
90. ^Robert Hemenway, "Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Biography, pp. 73–78, 96–99.
91. ^Carolyn Morrow Long, Spiritual Merchants, p. 123; see also Anderson.
92. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guides/Hurston.html|title=Zora Neale Hurston: Recordings, Manuscripts, and Ephemera in the Archive of Folk Culture and Other Divisions of the Library of Congress (The American Folklife Center, Library of Congress)|website=www.loc.gov|access-date=2017-02-25}}
93. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.baybottomnews.com|title=Bay Bottom News|publisher=}}
94. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.baybottomnews.com/about|title=About|date=November 12, 2009|publisher=}}
95. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/hurston_z.html|title=Zora Neale Hurston - Jump at the Sun - American Masters - PBS|date=August 26, 2008|publisher=}}
96. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/smithsonian/show_soul_people_writers.do |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120912055114/http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/smithsonian/show_soul_people_writers.do |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2012-09-12 |title=Smithsonian Channel: Home |publisher= }}
97. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470403802.html |title=Wiley: Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America |date=October 7, 2012 |publisher= |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007072915/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470403802.html |archivedate=October 7, 2012 |df= }}
98. ^A Woman Half in Shadow, BBC Radio 4.
99. ^"The death and rebirth of Zora Neale Hurston", Seriously ... , BBC.
100. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/true-story-marshall-how-accurate-are-characters-1045495/item/zora-neale-hurston-portrayed-by-rozonda-chilli-thomas-1045526 |title=The True Story of 'Marshall': How Accurate are the Characters? |publisher=Hollywood Reporter |date= |accessdate=2017-10-14}}
101. ^{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Sharon Lynette|title=Critical Companion to Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Reference to Her Life and Work|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vkRUxa8mc7YC&dq=isbn:0816068852|accessdate=November 24, 2013|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0816068852}}