| 词条 | Draft:Residential group climate |
| 释义 |
It may be possible to fix the style/tone issues with editing. But, I'm also concerned that the author appears to have close association with the topic. This is often an insurmountable problem, per COI. I'm assuming this is a translation of Leefklimaat? -- RoySmith (talk) 16:14, 4 October 2018 (UTC)}} This Wiki is about residential (living) group climate in care for adults and children with severe behavioral, psychiatric, criminal and other problems who live in therapy groups in open or secure care. When in care, therapy mostly is a small part of one’s daily living: the other 23 hours.[1] of living are perhaps more important for motivation and recovery when provided with basic psychological needs like relatedness, competence and autonomy[2] First residential (living) group climate is explained and defined (1 & 2). Then the introduction (3) explains the construct and historical background (4). In the following sections properties of living group climate (5) and experiences how to measure climate are explored (6). Examples of evidence based methods for climate improvement (7) are described, followed by an explanation of the learning climate in special education (8) and work climate (9) connected to living group climate. The different settings in which climate research has been performed are briefly mentioned in section 10. Explanation of residential (living) group climateSometimes people, e.g. children, adults and adolescents cannot live at home because the home environment is unsafe or they display behavioral problems. They live for example in foster care, family-style (residential) youth care, secure care or youth prison, and adults have to live in special homes or shelters, half-way houses, residential care, mental hospitals or prisons. They all live in groups with others, not being family or self-chosen to live with and share in common their perception of a residential (living) group climate. Synonyms also used are:
DefenitionResidential group climate can be defined as the quality of the social- and physical environment in terms of the provision of sufficient and necessary conditions for physical and mental health, well-being and personal growth of the residents, with respect for their human dignity and human rights as well as (if not restricted by judicial measures) their personal autonomy, aimed at participation in society’. [3]IntroductionIt has long been recognized in psychology, that whenever people live together, social climate is of relevance for mental health, personal well-being and growth. Especially the impact of a negative (living) group climate on wellbeing and mental health has been demonstrated by scholars. For example, neurobiological research shows feelings of isolation directly affect pain regions in the brain[4] and affect interpersonal behavior negatively.[5] This negative behavior often leads to further isolation and even coercive and judicial measures by others (negative transactional processes)[6], and further deteriorating climate perceptions. Patterson and Bank[7] call this a coercive cycle, resulting in more deviant and aggressive behavior.[8] It is therefore an important quality aspect of institutions to maintain a positive living group climate and motivate clients[9] for change and recovery.[3] Residential (living) group climate is important to improve quality of service. However it is a subjective concept, so it is important to define crucial aspects and subsequently measure important aspects of the climate. Thereby institutions can keep improving growth and participation chances of children and clients, and so reducing problem behavior and recidivism, and at the same time improving executive functioning, cognitive-, social-emotional and personal growth. Residential (living) group climate (hereafter called: ‘living group climate’) is not new: already before World War II some practitioners concerned themselves with the climate in their institutions. Historical backgroundThe notion that living group climate is important for behavior and recovery is not new. Already before World War II the Jewish doctor Janusz Korczak, director of two Jewish orphanages in Warsaw, was experimenting giving more autonomy to his children. In 1961 Erving Goffman wrote his seminal book ‘Asylums’ detailing his theory of the “total institution” and describing the lack of autonomy patients had.[10] In the sixties of the previous age Trieschmann and Whittaker wrote a book called ‘the other 23 hours’,[11] referring to the hours patients were not having official therapy but were coached by mental health nurses or social workers, which was later called ‘sociotherapy’. The Dutch pedagogue professor Kok[12] formulated his ‘three strategy’ theory for effective treatment. The first strategy was a good living group climate on which a second-degree strategy (excellent professional behavior by staff) and a third degree-strategy (evidence based individual therapy) could be built. In retrospective he turned out to be right. In the two meta-analyses of Weisz[13][14] it was later found no single (3th degree strategy) could reach more effectiveness in treatment over 20%, but most times in clinical cases less. Therefore effective treatment should probably include living group climate as well as professional behavior by staff.[3][15] After the realization, single therapies and pharmaceutics only would not provide for effective answers in treatment, more interest in climate factors and professional behavior was slowly to emerge in the past ten years. As climate is a fuzzy construct, it became important to anchor the construct in a grounded theory. Crucial aspects of living group climate: basic psychological needsIn order to look for crucial aspects of climate to improve motivation for behavior and recovery an important motivational theory, Self Determination Theory (SDT), which has gained much empirical support during the past decades, can be called upon to provide some answers.[9] This SDT asserts there are three basic psychological needs which can be applied to the social living group climate: autonomy (5.1), competence (5.2) and relatedness (5.3). In living group climate atmosphere also plays an important role (5.4). AutonomyThere is ample research showing when children and clients are able to make their own choices this will produce a better learning effect and more motivation for learning compared to forced (or ‘introjected’) motivation.[16] Also, personality development, which is strongly related to development, motivation and behavior is fostered by autonomy.[2][16][17] In secure residential care, housing and prison, autonomy is often severely restricted or even rejected by group workers and staff.[15] This tendency to restrict autonomy of the child or client by repression is often augmented by existing punishment and reward systems[3] and fear of staff for losing control over the children or clients.[8][18] Opposed to this tendency, according to SDT, (secure) residential and forensic youth care staff should learn to grant more autonomy and to enable shared decision making with youths and clients in order to enhance treatment motivation.[8][19][20] CompetenceIn the SDT competence also has an important role as a fundamental psychological need.[2][16] Yet children and clients referred to secure residential care or prison often have a fragmented life history, with many adverse childhood experiences and social and educational failures.[21] As a consequence, their behavior is often ‘pain based’[22] which elicits many negative transactional processes with caregivers, teachers and authority figures. They often experience less feelings of competence, which can result in an external locus of control and sometimes learned helplessness.[23] This severely hampers feelings of competence and possibilities for development. Behavioral management in facilities often stimulates learned helplessness and diminishes perceived growth by repression.[8] According to SDT competence is something which cannot be forced, but has to be fostered (‘grass does not grow by pulling at it’). By fostering learning, intrinsic motivation (as opposed to a-motivation and learned helplessness) will fuel more perceptions of development and improve behavior. RelatednessContact with others (this is called ‘relatedness’ in the terminology of the self determination theory) is one of the most important features of our social brain.[24] Therefore a lack of contact often results in mental disorders and impaired executive functioning.[25][26] Contact is also necessary for behavioral influence, as the positive discipline saying goes “connection before correction”. There is ample evidence in literature that the ‘working alliance’[27] is an important feature of secure residential-, forensic- and psychiatric care.[28] Petra Schaftenaar showed relatedness in psychiatric care to decrease recidivism as Parhar[29] did the same for youth. Yet today in many residential facilities withholding contact or even separation is used as a way of punishment for improper behavior[30][31] which often results in frustration of basic psychological needs and more violence, even leading up to more separation. In order to produce long-term treatment motivation, in accordance with the self determination theory, group staff should support adolescents in their relationships.[27] After all, a a better group climate in secure residential, psychiatric, and forensic youth care is characterized by support.[32] AtmosphereIn residential care, atmosphere is a special characteristic (also related to autonomy and competence) because it stresses the need to maintain a balance between flexibility, needed from staff to let children and clients experiment with new behavior, and the need for control to avert chaos and anarchy.[23] This balance is attained trough structure and safety. Structure is needed to create a predictable social environment with meaningful daily routines (also enhancing competence) and a number of rules (not too much interfering with autonomy) to stimulate pro-social behavior among children and clients, together with respectful mutual contact will provide for safety. Staff members play an important role in maintaining order, as it is often a characteristic of children and clients to have executive problems and lack meta-cognitive skills (e.g. psychiatric problems or a Mild Intellectual Disability). This means they need to be told in advance what is expected from them and they often need help with their behavior; when this fails consequences are sometimes necessary to help them further (limited setting instead of punishment).[3] Measuring (living) group climateIn the past 30 years many scholars have attempted to identify climate aspects and subsequently develop validated instruments, often with many items. In the past, most of these instruments turned out to be of meagre validity and reliability, but also containing many lengthy items consisting of difficult words requiring meta-cognitive skills which most children and clients, due to their limited executive functioning, could not understand properly. Besides that, crucial elements of living group climate remained unclear. In the last ten years three systematic review studies have been published, of which two mainly pertain to the prison environment but are closely related to SDT.[33][34] Tonkin[33] describes the following factors in his review: relatedness, growth, structure, system, safety, autonomy and quality of life. Furthermore, Boone et al.[35] describe six factors: contact with staff, autonomy, contact with the outside world, safety, meaningful daily activities, and physical health. They also describe the physical surroundings, professionality of staff, and characteristics of staff and inmates. The study of Van der Helm[23] also looks at more open settings and homes, this was derived from earlier studies[36] and describes contact with staff, perceptions of growth, repression (opposite of autonomy) and atmosphere (structure and activities, rules and safety and mutual contact between children and clients). A recent scoping review by Van der Helm et al. (in Dutch)[9] also addresses shelters and housing. Up till now the most frequent used (and published) instruments internationally appear to be the Essen CES[37] which is mainly used in psychiatry, and the Group Climate Instrument (originally adapted from the Prison Group Climate Instrument)[23], which has a wider application. The Essen CES measures ‘Therapeutic Hold’, referring to the extent to which the unit is perceived as supportive of patients’ therapeutic needs (very much like relatedness); ‘Experienced Safety’, representing freedom from the threat of aggression and violence; and ‘Patient Cohesion and Mutual Support’. The Essen CES is validated in German, English and Dutch.[38] The GCI measures responsivity from staff (very much like Therapeutic Hold), Growth (Competence), Repression (the opposite of autonomy) and atmosphere (in the GCI this incorporates structure, safety and mutual relations between children and clients, much like ‘Patient Cohesion and Mutual Support’). The GCI is used for open (residential youth care, adult shelters and homes) and secure settings (secure youth care, Prison and Psychiatry). Also the questionnaire is used for family style children’s homes and has a special validated questionnaire for children aged 4-8 and 8-14[39] as well as an observation list for children and patients unable to read or write or with very limited cognitive ability, a validated questionnaire for MID.[40] The PGCI (Prison Group Climate Inventory) is validated in Dutch,[23] German,[41] English, Estonian, Russian, Papiaments, Swahili, Xhosa, Hindi & Tamil. Translations and validations are currently being written in Turkish, Spanish and a number of Slavic languages with good initial results due to the simple wording and limited items. Improving (living) group climate in practiceImproving living group climate in practice is often best accomplished by a Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle (PDCA)[42]. First everybody is informed about the scheme and a first measurement is performed with all children or clients in order to assess a base-line (in case of the CGI this baseline is compared to a specific reference group). Then the results are discussed with staff, and they will discuss these results with the children/clients. Together SMART plans for improvement are formulated. Letting the children and clients be a part of something they can influence themselves gives them a voice. Lastly follow-up measurements will assess whether the formulated SMART plans have worked and what is needed to further improve climate. Learning climate in special educationChildren who live in foster care, youth care facilities or stay in prison, also attend special education classes and often experience cognitive, social emotional and behavioral problems.[43] Therefore creating a healthy and positive learning environment is a challenging task for special education teachers.[44][45] The method of improving living group climate in practice also proved to be evidence based in special education, where climate is also very important for cognitive- and social-emotional learning and personality development. Anderson et al.[46] and Wissink et al.[47] in: Beld[48] for example, found that learning climate is a crucial factor impacting children’s motivation and behavior. Learning climate can be defined as: The perceived quality of students’ proximal social learning environment which facilitates motivation for learning, supports cognitive and social development of students and academic achievement and encompasses teacher support, structure, a positive group atmosphere among students and safety.[48]A validated self-report questionnaire, the Special Education Classroom Climate Inventory (SECCI), was designed and proved to be a reliable instrument to assess classroom climate in schools.[48] To improve classroom climate, the PDCA cycle as described above is also employed in schools to support school teams in developing a positive learning climate. Work climate of staffResearch has shown that staff is a key factor in providing and maintaining a positive living group climate; staff has to do the work (‘people make the place’).[49] It can be a difficult task to work in a high risk work environment. The work-climate must be good in order to enable staff to keep the above-mentioned balance between flexibility and control. Measurement and improvement of the work climate can help improve the living group climate. Applications for different settingsRegular monitoring of the living group climate (and work climate) helps staff to improve professional behavior, but also make children/clients aware of their own responsibility towards a good climate, from which all involved profit. In different settings the climate approach has proven to be very fruitful, for example:
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