“Draft:Therapeutic and Emotional Effects of Music on Humans”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

For centuries, music has been an integral part of human life. In this article, we will focus solely on the effects music has on humans emotionally and therapeutically. Whether people created music as a result of the emotions they were experiencing at the time, or whether the music produced emotional reactions, it is clear that music has had a tremendous effect on humans emotionally. Many times, when people are affected emotionally by music, they express their emotions physically. Music is also an outlet for many individuals to express their personality, to represent themselves, or to create an external impression on others. Music plays a key role in respect to therapy as well, largely to soothe the mind and body. Additionally, music used for therapy aids in rehabilitation for mentally or physically ill people, the development of speech, and memory-based cues for other motor actions. Whether music is used for therapeutic purposes or emotional ones, it is no doubt that music has affected mankind since the dawn of time. In this paper, we will explore how and why music affects humans emotionally and therapeutically.

Emotional Effect

People often express their emotions through music. This expression can take many forms, one of which being one’s vocal cords. Expressions through vocal cords can take two forms in humans: their tone of voice in speaking, and non-verbal expressions such as laughing, crying, and screaming ^[1]. Emotions are different than moods in the duration of time, facial expressions (or lack thereof), and a stimulating event ^[2]. It may turn out that musical emotions are unlike any other type of emotion ^[3]. Thus, emotions are often expressed differently than moods. Often, different types of music affect us differently. Classical music enhances dopamine secretion in the brain; rap stimulates emotion, language, and motivation; heavy metal may elicit a sense of identity; pop/rock improves endurance, but can also distract while working; jazz soothes the body. Listening to classical music can help increase the efficacy of neurons in the brain, which in turn creates emotional reactions ^[4]. However, a strong experience of music may occur in connection with any music, and one can hardly find any distinct differences in emotional reactions to music of different genres ^[5].

Physical Responses

Physical responses to music are among the most common responses to music, primarily to musical passages with special emotional meaning for a person ^[6]. Physical state, cognitive factors, emotional state etc., are all factors in how we respond to music. Additionally, a listener’s response to music depends somewhat on age, gender, personality, musical training, current mood, and such ^[7]. A few reactions to music include intensified perception, concentration on the music, the disorientation of time, loss of self-consciousness, an intense feeling of living, a feeling of freedom, etc. ^[8]. Most emotional responses to music are happiness, joy, elation, and bliss ^[9]. However, some responses to music are negative; in some cases leaving the individual feeling ill. Many times, the feeling of sadness is associated with a piece of music. The reason humans “feel” different emotions from listening to music is not altogether clear; however, the brain’s emotional, language and memory centers are connected when we process music-- providing what is essentially a synesthetic experience ^[10]. The word, “synesthetic,” meaning, “A neurological or psychological phenomenon whereby a particular sensory stimulus triggers a second kind of sensation” ^[11]. Basically, the stimulus (music) acts upon the brain, triggering emotions. Research indicated that a listener’s response to music involves parts of the brain that are implicated in emotional responses, directly linking the effects of music on our brain and emotional state ^[12].

Physiological Arousal

Music can express emotions as well as arouse emotions ^[13]. Evidence suggests that music may be a common trigger for extraordinary emotional experiences. Several studies have concluded that music affects physiological arousal. A rise in heartbeat and pulse, shallower breathing, a rise in skin temperature, and irregular brain wave patterns may occur while listening to music ^[14]. “ Arousal defined...as stimulation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), is one of the most important aspects of musical performance and plays into nearly all studies of music and emotion” ^[15]. Music causes physiological arousal because the sounds it originated from probably came from emotional communications ^[16]. Music is both intellectual and emotional, restoring the links between mind and body ^[17]. Research has found that music stimulates emotions through specific brain circuits ^[18], and different levels of emotional processes recruit brain areas differently depending on the type of emotion ^[19].

Unconscious Reactions

Musical emotions sometimes happen without consciousness or willingness ^[20]. Emotions are responses that are hard to disguise and may occur spontaneously and without awareness ^[21]. Music running in the head is evidence that music is an integral part of mental life ^[22], and is possibly the reason we react to music without our awareness of doing so. Habitus is a pattern of action where we’re not fully aware of why we do what we do; a tendency to behave a certain way. ^[23]. Perception of emotion in a piece of music may affect us emotionally although we are not consciously aware of this process ^[24].

Music and Emotion

Music can be argued to have qualities that elicit emotion in us ^[25], and listeners often find it natural to attach emotion labels to music ^[26]. However, music does not always elicit emotion in a listener. “The appreciation of music is tied to the ability to process its underlying structure-- the ability to predict what will occur next in the song. But this structure has to involve some level of the unexpected, or it becomes emotionally devoid” ^[27]. Emotional responses to music depend on what the music is used for ^[28]. Mood ratings indicated that the soothing music created somewhat different positive moods, while the aversive music tended to arouse negative feelings ^[29]. Negative strong experiences of music were attributed to high volume, heavy drumming, etc. ^[30]. Other music, such as instrumental, may sometimes suggest emotions in a vague way ^[31].

Music and the Human Brain

One of the first things that happens when music enters our brains is the triggering of pleasure centers in the brain that release dopamine, a neurotransmitter that makes you feel happy ^[32]. Listening to music can create a peak emotion, increasing the amount of dopamine, which is a specific neurotransmitter that is produced in the brain and helps control the brain’s reward and pleasure centers ^[33]. Interestingly, the brain can even anticipate the most pleasurable peaks in music and prime itself with an early dopamine rush ^[34]. Our brains are amazing in their capacity to process and analyze music, even from an early age. “Infant’s behavior indicated that they could recognize and respond to the overall temporal structure of a pattern independent of the specific durations and pitches of individual elements”^[35].Infants can detect new or different changes in music patterns and we can recognize familiar melodies because of relations between notes ^[36].

Influence on Reaction

Information affects how we respond to music, so there is little music that we come to “blind” ^[37]. There are two kinds of musical emotions: those that concern aesthetic value of music, and emotions that are expressed or induced by the music itself ^[38]. Certain stimuli associated in the brain with certain events influence certain emotional responses. Similarly, emotional reactions may occur from music bringing to mind a memory ^[39]. However, music has the ability to conjure up images and feelings that aren’t necessarily reflected in memory ^[40]. Others’ emotions may also influence our behavior ^[41]. Often, a listener’s response to a particular piece of music is governed by his subjective state of mind at the time ^[42]. A habitus of listening suggests a disposition to listen with a particular kind of focus, to expect to experience particular kinds of emotion ^[43]. “Skilled composers manipulate the emotion within a song knowing what their audience’s expectations are, and controlling when those expectations will (and will not) be met. This successful manipulation is what elicits the chills that are a part of any moving song” ^[44].

Social Representation

Musical emotions are a type of social representation ^[45]. Music can be a powerful cultural symbol, aiding in an adolescents’ construction and presentation of themselves ^[46]. Music helps construct emotions in how individuals use it to elaborate on an emotional feeling or display ^[47]. Music provides numerous ways in which musical materials and practices can be used for self-interpretation, self-presentation, and for the expression of one’s emotional states ^[48]. Music doesn’t always act upon someone as an emotional stimulus, but it can act as a resource for knowing how one feels ^[49]. Studies have shown that girls were most likely to report that music could be used as a means of mood regulation, whereas boys reported that music could be a means of creating an outward impression with others ^[50].

Therapeutic Effect

Music can motivate movement as well as being a precursor to speech ^[51]. The route to communicative development of a child’s native language may be musical ^[52]. The way in which our brains process music’s logical order most likely prepares the brain for learning a language. Music is not a language but it does have a syntax, which is why we comprehend the logical order in its sounds ^[53]. Musical training heightens the brain’s ability to pick out specific sounds; this ability helps the brain become more adept at learning new languages ^[54].

Language Development

Some biologists argue that language is an innate skill, but studies show that listening to music can help children with their language development, based upon the idea that music closely mirrors the pitch, tempo, and timbre of everyday speech^[55]. Infants rely on a battery of musical information to learn speech such as timbre, pitch, dynamic stress, and rhythm.

Babies can pick up on the language of music as a template when it comes to understanding speech^[56]. Because music and language are very similar, a baby’s speech and reading development is greatly furthered if they can comprehend how music is put together^[57]. Infants use the musical aspects of language as scaffolding for the later development of semantic and syntactic aspects of language. Infants are not just listening for affective cues nor are they focused exclusively on meaning: they are listening for how their language is composed^[58].

When an infant or a later young child applies the familiarity of melody to how sentences are spoken, there is a stronger chance that they could understand the language more quickly^[59]. The sound of music could help with learning the flow and sound of speech, but learning to create music itself can help develop verbal memory that helps children recognize familiar words more easily^[60].

Speech Therapy

Superimposing a strong rhythmic pulse on intoned spoken phrases can provide the temporal structure and oral-motor coordination needed to help a person with dysarthria, a motor-speech problem, to speak more intelligibly ^[61]. After suffering from a stroke that caused dysarthria (which disturbs the control of muscles used for speech), a woman's speaking ability was improved through music therapy involving singing. The rhythm and melody in music provide clear structures within which to organize, sequence, chunk, and recall verbal information ^[62]. This is why many things are easier to remember if learned through music, i.e., children are often taught the alphabet through songs, and it is also why many adults still remember words to the songs taught to them as a child. Also, different forms of literacy are able to be taught through music. “A child who does not understand the structural rules of language may learn linguistic prosody through the use of words in melody” ^[63]. Music can facilitate speech and language rehabilitation through strong timing mechanisms to entrain the oscillatory circuit in the speech centers of the brain ^[64].

Neuroplasticity and Rehabilitative Medicine

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life and can be greatly affected by the harmony of music and the brain ^[65] Similar to the entrainment effects of rhythm on motor control, music may help regulate the mechanisms of cognitive timing and mental flexibility, improving brain agility ^[66]. Music therapists use the elements of music (melody, rhythm, form, harmony, and timbre) to promote cognitive development ^[67]. Music-based cues can inform many areas of physical and cognitive function, making it an excellent tool in rehabilitative medicine ^[68]. Training to play an instrument is believed to increase gray matter volume in parts of the brain, similar to how physical exercise tones and enlarges muscles ^[69].

Music can be therapeutic, aiding people with some diseases. “Research has shown that listening to music is associated with upticks in immunity-boosting antibiotics and cells that protect against bacteria and other invaders” ^[70]. Recorded music is a static stimulus that serves as a source of consistent external regulation to support the stability of heart rate, oxygen saturation, and to modify an individual’s response to painful stimuli ^[71]. Using music tempo, music therapists can regulate a patient’s irregular breathing and help the patient then be able to maintain regular breathing. Music therapy is often used to help hospitalized patients with pain relief and relaxation of muscle tension. Music can cause changes in heartbeat, electrodermal responses, respiration, skin temperature, etc. ^[72]. Blood pressure, muscle action and pulse rate sometimes increase while listening to music. When these physiological changes are able to be controlled, patients with irregular and unhealthy changes in these areas are able to regulate, with music, factors that otherwise may be threatening to their health. Lullabies have the effect of markedly decreasing heart rate ^[73], and are also very successful in aiding people with sleep disorders such as insomnia.

Motor Function

A girl with neurological defects learned to be toilet trained through songs that were designed to sequence the steps being taught. Songs can be written to facilitate initiation, sequencing, and motor planning in activities of daily living or learning instructions, directions or lists of information ^[74]. Rhythmic and melodic patterns can help specific movement sequences be encoded in a type of memory in the nervous system called motor memory ^[75]. Occasionally, music’s effect upon the brain can be the opposite of therapeutic, provoking a fit of epilepsy ^[76]. Active music making has improved the upper limb function of people with Parkinson’s Disease and survivors of strokes. Increase in the tempo of music has helped patients recover from a stroke by coaching their walking pace back to normal. And for a patient that suffered from TBI, music therapy helped him regain his loss of balance. These are just mere glimpses of ways music and music therapy has acted as a rehabilitative aid.

What Is Music Therapy?

Music therapy is an established health profession in which music is used within a therapeutic relationship to help the physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs of individuals ^[77]. “Music therapy is the clinical and evidence-based use of music to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship…”^[78]. Accessing emotions through music can provide a more comfortable starting point for discussing and accepting different feelings^[79].. The unique capacity of music to engender emotional release may be in itself therapeutic ^[80]. Music improvisation is often a fundamental part of music therapy interventions ^[81].

In group therapy, song discussion often functions as supportive therapy, helping clients to experience meaningful connections and a decreased sense of isolation as they communicate with others ^[82]. Music therapy helps with social skills, management skills, and cooperativeness. People dealing with brain injury and emotional instability are able to establish a sense of pride, social skills, and self-confidence through music therapy. “The elements of music --melody, rhythm, form, harmony, and timbre-- can be used to create an environment that motivates people with intellectual and developmental challenges to grow and engage with their world” ^[83]. Music therapy has been shown to promote communication between carers and patients with dementia and it has a positive effect on agitated patient behavior, restoring cognitive and motor function ^[84]. Music therapy also provides a channel for mentally unstable people to express their feelings in music. Songwriting with a music therapist helps children with ASD to express their feelings, as they are challenged with thinking abstractly ^[85]. Children with language and intellectual disabilities are also able to express themselves through music used in music therapy.

Musical Anesthesia

“Music anesthesia is a receptive application that can be conceptualized as the use of music listening to reduce the client’s perception of pain or anxiety related to pain…” ^[86]. Music can help individuals break out of cycles of high anxiety, insomnia, or lethargy while depressed. In many studies, MT/MBI (Music Therapy/Music-Based Intervention) had beneficial effects on mood and emotions, i.e, positive mood changes, decreased negative emotions, e.g., anxiety, depression, anger, and increased positive feelings, e.g., enjoyment and happiness ^[87]. Enjoyable and rewarding musical experiences can promote relaxation and alleviate anxiety ^[88]. Music has an anesthetic effect in reducing anxiety and diverting attention from negative experiences, which can assist patients to cope better with emotional stress ^[89]. Songwriting, for therapy through an illness, can be helpful for a person to reflect on their frustrations, give some focus and hope for the future, and provide relaxation for stress. People struggling with grief and loss are helped by music which connects to their present feelings, giving them emotional release.

Substance Abuse Therapy

Music therapy is widely used in assisting people who are recovering from substance use disorders. Making music, songwriting, or choosing to listen to different songs can help clients express the emotions they are beginning to feel when they get sober instead of trying to escape these feelings through the use of drugs and alcohol^[90].. Music therapy can aid addiction recovery by improving the ability to recognize different emotions, promoting self-expression and self-awareness, increasing self-esteem, and facilitating relaxation and stress reduction^[91].. Lack of stress management and coping skills is one reason people turn to drugs and alcohol in the first place, and why many people relapse. Music therapy helps people with addictions to manage withdrawal symptoms and stress ^[92]. Listening to music can help their nerves and help them de-stress^[93].. Music therapy can aid recovering addicts to increase self-esteem by giving them an outlet to creating something they feel good about.^[94]..

Memory and Attention

Daily music listening has been found to significantly improve attention and verbal memory for stroke survivors ^[95]. Music therapy can be an effective tool in cognitive rehabilitation by using music to provide a sensory environment for the brain and supply rhythmic timing cues and musical patterns that stimulate attention ^[96]. Listening to pleasurable music increased the release of dopamine in the brain and other research had shown that dopamine promotes learning to approach rewards, while a deficiency of dopamine promotes learning of punishments ^[97]. Some music can help people concentrate; however, the opposite effect is also true. It is often said that pleasurable music is a distraction for a musically trained person. This is because the musically trained person generally pays more attention and devotes more cognitive resources to pleasurable music’s inherent structure in the process of analyzing and realizing its pleasing quality ^[98]. A central tenet of learning is that any kind of distraction impairs formation of memory. Thus, in some cases, music can inhibit learning. Musically untrained people generally learn better with positive music presumably because of the positive emotions it generates without the complication of analyzing it and thus interfering with memory formation ^[99]. Although some people claim that their capacity for studying is enhanced by background music, there is evidence that music interferes with intense concentration ^[100]. Positive emotions have an indirect enhancing effect on forming memories. Negative emotions impair memory and it is highly relevant that the same brain structure, the hippocampus, mediates both emotions and memory formation ^[101].

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