“Bayard Rustin”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Bayard Rustin ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|aɪ|.|ər|d}}; March 17, 1912 – August 24, 1987) was an American leader in social movements for civil rights, socialism, nonviolence, and gay rights.

Rustin worked with A. Philip Randolph on the March on Washington Movement in 1941 to press for an end to discrimination in employment. Rustin later organized Freedom Rides and helped to organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to strengthen Martin Luther King Jr.'s leadership, teaching King about nonviolence and later serving as an organizer for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.^[1]

After the passage of the civil rights legislation of 1964–65, Rustin became the head of the AFL–CIO's A. Philip Randolph Institute, which promoted the integration of formerly all-white unions and promoted the unionization of African Americans. During the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin served on many humanitarian missions, such as aiding refugees from Communist Vietnam and Cambodia. At the time of his death in 1987, he was on a humanitarian mission in Haiti.

Rustin was a gay man who had been arrested early in his career for engaging in public sex.^[2] Due to criticism over his sexuality, he usually acted as an influential adviser behind the scenes to civil-rights leaders. In the 1980s, he became a public advocate on behalf of gay and lesbian causes.

Later in life, Rustin shifted ideologically towards neoconservatism, for which President Ronald Reagan posthumously praised him after his death in 1987.^[3]^[4]^[5]

On November 20, 2013, President Barack Obama posthumously awarded Rustin the Presidential Medal of Freedom.^[6]

Early life

Rustin was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, to Florence Rustin and Archie Hopkins, but raised by his maternal grandparents, Julia (Davis) and Janifer Rustin, as the ninth of their twelve children; growing up he believed his biological mother was his older sister.^[7]^[7]^[8]^[9] His grandparents were local caterers and relatively wealthy who raised Rustin in a large house.^[7] Julia Rustin was a Quaker, although she attended her husband's African Methodist Episcopal Church. She was also a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). NAACP leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson were frequent guests in the Rustin home. With these influences in his early life, in his youth Rustin campaigned against racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws.^[10]

In 1932, Rustin entered Wilberforce University, a historically black college (HBCU) in Ohio operated by the AME Church. As a student at Wilberforce, Rustin was active in a number of campus organizations, including the Omega Psi Phi Fraternity. He was expelled from Wilberforce in 1936 after organizing a strike,^[11] and later attended Cheyney State Teachers College (now Cheyney University of Pennsylvania). Cheyney honored Rustin with a posthumous "Doctor of Humane Letters" degree at its 2013 commencement.

After completing an activist training program conducted by the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), Rustin moved to Harlem in 1937 and began studying at City College of New York. There he became involved in efforts to defend and free the Scottsboro Boys, nine young black men in Alabama who were accused of raping two white women. He joined the Young Communist League for a small period of time in 1936, before becoming disillusioned with the party.^[8] Soon after arriving in New York City, he became a member of Fifteenth Street Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers).

Rustin was an accomplished tenor vocalist, an asset which earned him admission to both Wilberforce University and Cheyney State Teachers College with music scholarships.^[12] In 1939, he was in the chorus of a short-lived musical that starred Paul Robeson. Blues singer Josh White was also a cast member, and later invited Rustin to join his band, "Josh White and the Carolinians". This gave Rustin the opportunity to become a regular performer at the Café Society nightclub in Greenwich Village, widening his social and intellectual contacts.^[13] A few albums on Fellowship Records featuring his singing were produced from the 1950s through the 1970s.

Political philosophy

Rustin's personal philosophy is said to have been inspired by combining Quaker pacifism with socialism (as taught by A. Philip Randolph) and the theory of non-violent protest, popularized by Mahatma Gandhi.^[8]

Evolving affiliations

At the direction of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and its members were active in the civil rights movement for African Americans.^[14] The CPUSA, at the time following Stalin's "theory of nationalism", favored the creation of a separate nation for African-Americans to be located in the American Southeast where the greatest proportion of the black population was concentrated.^[15] In 1941, after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin ordered the CPUSA to abandon civil rights work and focus on supporting U.S. entry into World War II.

Disillusioned, Rustin began working with members of the Socialist Party of Norman Thomas, particularly A. Philip Randolph, the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; another socialist mentor was the pacifist A. J. Muste, leader of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR). FOR hired Rustin as a race relation secretary in the late summer of 1941.^[16]

The three of them proposed a march on Washington in 1941 to protest racial segregation in the armed forces and widespread discrimination in employment. Meeting with President Roosevelt in the Oval Office, Randolph respectfully and politely, but firmly told President Roosevelt that African Americans would march in the capital unless desegregation occurred. To prove their good faith, the organizers canceled the planned march after Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 (the Fair Employment Act), which banned discrimination in defense industries and federal agencies. The leader of the organizers, Randolph, canceled the march against Rustin's advisement.^[16] The armed forces were not desegregated until 1948, under an Executive Order issued by President Harry S. Truman.

Randolph felt that FOR had succeeded in their goal and wanted to dissolve the committee. Again, Rustin disagreed with him and voiced his differing opinion in a national press conference, which he later regretted.^[16]

Rustin traveled to California to help protect the property of the more than 120,000 Japanese Americans, most native-born, who had been imprisoned in internment camps. Impressed with Rustin's organizational skills, A.J. Muste appointed him as FOR's secretary for student and general affairs.

Rustin was also a pioneer in the movement to desegregate interstate bus travel. In 1942, he boarded a bus in Louisville, bound for Nashville, and sat in the second row. A number of drivers asked him to move to the back, according to Southern practice of Jim Crow, but Rustin refused. The bus was stopped by police 13 miles north of Nashville and Rustin was arrested. He was beaten and taken to the police station, but was released uncharged.^[17]

He spoke about his decision to be arrested, and how that moment also clarified his witness as a gay person, in an interview with the Washington Blade:

"As I was going by the second seat to go to the rear, a white child reached out for the ring necktie I was wearing and pulled it, whereupon its mother said, 'Don't touch a n*****.'

If I go and sit quietly at the back of that bus now, that child, who was so innocent of race relations that it was going to play with me, will have seen so many blacks go in the back and sit down quietly that it's going to end up saying, 'They like it back there, I've never seen anybody protest against it.' I owe it to that child, not only to my own dignity, I owe it to that child, that it should be educated to know that blacks do not want to sit in the back, and therefore I should get arrested, letting all these white people in the bus know that I do not accept that.

"It occurred to me shortly after that that it was an absolute necessity for me to declare homosexuality, because if I didn't I was a part of the prejudice. I was aiding and abetting the prejudice that was a part of the effort to destroy me.".^[2]}}

In 1942, Rustin assisted two other FOR staffers, George Houser and James L. Farmer, Jr., and activist Bernice Fisher as they formed the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Rustin was not a direct founder, but was "an uncle of CORE," Farmer and Houser said later. CORE was conceived as a pacifist organization based on the writings of Mohandas Gandhi's who used non-violent resistance against British rule in India. CORE was also influenced by his protege Krishnalal Shridharani's book War without Violence.^[18]^[19]

Declared pacifists who refused induction into the military, Rustin, Houser, and other members of FOR and CORE were convicted of violating the Selective Service Act. From 1944 to 1946, Rustin was imprisoned in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary, where he organized protests against segregated dining facilities. During his incarceration, Rustin also organized FOR's Free India Committee. After his release from prison, he was frequently arrested for protesting against British colonial rule in India and Africa.

Just before a trip to Africa while college secretary of the FOR, Rustin recorded a 10-inch LP for the Fellowship Records label. He sang spirituals and Elizabethan songs, accompanied on the harpsichord by Margaret Davison.^[20]

Influence on the Civil Rights Movement

Rustin and Houser organized the Journey of Reconciliation in 1947. This was the first of the Freedom Rides to test the ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel as unconstitutional. Rustin and CORE executive secretary George Houser recruited a team of fourteen men, divided equally by race, to ride in pairs through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky.^[21] The NAACP opposed CORE's Gandhian tactics as too meek. Participants in the Journey of Reconciliation were arrested several times. Arrested with Jewish activist Igal Roodenko, Rustin served twenty-two days on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating state Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation.^[22]^[23]

In 1948, Rustin traveled to India to learn techniques of nonviolent civil resistance directly from the leaders of the Gandhian movement. The conference had been organized before Gandhi's assassination earlier that year. Between 1947 and 1952, Rustin also met with leaders of independence movements in Ghana and Nigeria. In 1951, he formed the Committee to Support South African Resistance, which later became the American Committee on Africa.

Rustin was arrested in Pasadena, California, in 1953 for sexual activity with another man in a parked car. Originally charged with vagrancy and lewd conduct, he pleaded guilty to a single, lesser charge of "sex perversion" (as sodomy was officially referred to in California then, even if consensual) and served 60 days in jail. This was the first time that his homosexuality had come to public attention. He had been and remained candid in private about his sexuality, although homosexual activity was still criminalized throughout the United States. After his conviction, he was fired from FOR. He became the executive secretary of the War Resisters League. Later, in Montana, an American Legion chapter made his conviction in Pasadena public to try to cancel his lectures in the state.^[24]

Rustin served as an unidentified member of the American Friends Service Committee's task force to write "Speak Truth to Power: A Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence,"^[25] published in 1955. This was one of the most influential and widely commented upon pacifist essays in the United States. Rustin had wanted to keep his participation quiet, as he believed that his known sexual orientation would be used by critics as an excuse to compromise the 71-page pamphlet when it was published. It analyzed the Cold War and the American response to it, and recommended non-violent solutions.

Rustin took leave from the War Resisters League in 1956 to advise minister Martin Luther King Jr. of the Baptist Church on Gandhian tactics. King was organizing the public transportation boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, which became known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott. According to Rustin, "I think it's fair to say that Dr. King's view of non-violent tactics was almost non-existent when the boycott began. In other words, Dr. King was permitting himself and his children and his home to be protected by guns." Rustin convinced King to abandon the armed protection, including a personal handgun.^[26] In a 1964 interview with Robert Penn Warren for the book Who Speaks for the Negro?, Rustin also reflected that his integrative ideology began to differ from King's. He believed a social movement "has to be based on the collective needs of people at this time, regardless of color, creed, race."^[27]

The following year, Rustin and King began organizing the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Many African-American leaders were concerned that Rustin's sexual orientation and past Communist membership would undermine support for the civil rights movement. U.S. Representative Adam Clayton Powell Jr., who was a member of the SCLC's board, forced Rustin's resignation from the SCLC in 1960 by threatening to discuss Rustin's morals charge in Congress.^[28] Although Rustin was open about his sexual orientation and his conviction was a matter of public record, the events had not been discussed widely beyond the civil rights leadership.

March on Washington

Despite shunning from some civil rights leaders, {{quote|[w]hen the moment came for an unprecedented mass gathering in Washington, Randolph pushed Rustin forward as the logical choice to organize it.^[29]}}

A few weeks before the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963, South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond railed against Rustin as a "Communist, draft-dodger, and homosexual," and had his entire Pasadena arrest file entered in the record.^[29] Thurmond also produced a Federal Bureau of Investigation photograph of Rustin talking to King while King was bathing, to imply that there was a same-sex relationship between the two. Both men denied the allegation of an affair.

Rustin was instrumental in organizing the march. He drilled off-duty police officers as marshals, bus captains to direct traffic, and scheduled the podium speakers. Eleanor Holmes Norton and Rachelle Horowitz were aides.^[29] Despite King's support, NAACP chairman Roy Wilkins did not want Rustin to receive any public credit for his role in planning the march. Nevertheless, he did become well known. On September 6, 1963, a photograph of Rustin and Randolph appeared on the cover of Life magazine, identifying them as "the leaders" of the March.^[30]

New York City school boycott

At the beginning of 1964, Reverend Milton Galamison and other Harlem community leaders invited Rustin to coordinate a citywide boycott of public schools to protest their de facto segregation. Prior to the boycott, the organizers asked the United Federation of Teachers Executive Board to join the boycott or ask teachers to join the picket lines. The union declined, promising only to protect from reprisals any teachers who participated. More than 400,000 New Yorkers participated in a one-day February 3, 1964 boycott. Historian Daniel Perlstein notes that "newspapers were astounded both by the numbers of black and Puerto Rican parents and children who boycotted and by the complete absence of violence or disorder from the protesters."^[40] It was, Rustin stated, and newspapers reported, "the largest civil rights demonstration" in American history. Rustin said that "the movement to integrate the schools will create far-reaching benefits" for teachers as well as students.^[31]

The protest demanded complete integration of the city's schools (which would require some whites to attend schools in black neighborhoods), and it challenged the coalition between African Americans and white liberals. An ensuing white backlash affected relations among the black leaders. Writing to black labor leaders, Rustin denounced Galamison for seeking to conduct another boycott in the spring, and soon abandoned the coalition.^[31]

Rustin organized a May March 18 which called for "maximum possible" integration. Perlstein recounts. "This goal was to be achieved through such modest programs as the construction of larger schools and the replacement of junior high schools with middle schools. The UFT and other white moderates endorsed the May rally, yet only four thousand protesters showed up, and the Board of Education was no more responsive to the conciliatory May demonstration than to the earlier, more confrontational boycott."^[31]

When Rustin was invited to speak at the University of Virginia in 1964, school administrators tried to ban him, out of fear that he would organize a school boycott there. The flagship state university and local schools were still segregated.

From protest to politics

In the spring of 1964, Rev. Martin Luther King was considering hiring Rustin as executive director of SCLC, but was advised against it by Stanley Levison, a longtime activist friend of Rustin's. He opposed the hire because of what he considered Rustin's growing devotion to the political theorist Max Shachtman. "Shachtmanites" have been described as an ideologically cultish group with ardently anti-communist positions, and attachments to the Democratic Party and the AFL-CIO.^[32]

At the 1964 Democratic National Convention, which followed Freedom Summer in Mississippi, Rustin became an adviser to the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP); they were trying to gain recognition as the legitimate, non-Jim Crow delegation from their state, where blacks had been officially disenfranchised since the turn of the century (as they were generally throughout the South) and excluded from the official political system. DNC leaders Lyndon Johnson and Hubert Humphrey offered only two non-voting seats to the MFDP, with the official seating going to the regular segregationist Mississippi delegation. Rustin, following a line set by Shachtman^[33] and AFL-CIO leaders, urged the MFDP to take the offer. MFDP leaders, including Fannie Lou Hamer and Bob Moses, angrily rejected the arrangement; many of their supporters became highly suspicious of Rustin. Rustin's attempt to compromise appealed to the Democratic Party leadership.^[31]

After passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Rustin advocated closer ties between the civil rights movement and the Democratic Party, specifically the party's base among the white working class, many of whom still had strong union affiliations. With Tom Kahn, Rustin wrote an influential article in 1964 called "From Protest to Politics," published in Commentary magazine; it analyzed the changing economy and its implications for African Americans. Rustin wrote presciently that the rise of automation would reduce the demand for low-skill high-paying jobs, which would jeopardize the position of the urban African-American working class, particularly in northern states. He believed that the working class had to collaborate across racial lines for common economic goals. His prophecy has been proven right in the dislocation and loss of jobs for many urban African Americans due to restructuring of industry in the coming decades.

Rustin believed that the African-American community needed to change its political strategy, building and strengthening a political alliance with predominately white unions and other organizations (churches, synagogues, etc.) to pursue a common economic agenda. He wrote that it was time to move from protest to politics. Rustin's analysis of the economic problems of the Black community was widely influential.^[34]

He also argued that the African-American community was threatened by the appeal of identity politics, particularly the rise of "Black power." He thought this position was a fantasy of middle-class black people that repeated the political and moral errors of previous black nationalists, while alienating the white allies needed by the African-American community. Nation editor and Harvard Law Professor Randall Kennedy noted later that, while Rustin had a general "disdain of nationalism," he had a "very different attitude toward Jewish nationalism" and was "unflaggingly supportive of Zionism."^[35]

Because of these positions, Rustin was criticized as a "sell-out" by many of his former colleagues in the civil rights movement, especially those connected to grassroots organizing.^[37] They charged that he was lured by the material comforts that came with a less radical and more professional type of activism. While biographer John D'Emilio rejects these characterizations, Randall Kennedy wrote in a 2003 article that descriptions of Rustin as "a bought man" are "at least partly true." ^[35]

Labor movement: Unions and social democracy

Rustin increasingly worked to strengthen the labor movement, which he saw as the champion of empowerment for the African-American community and for economic justice for all Americans. He contributed to the labor movement's two sides, economic and political, through support of labor unions and social-democratic politics.

He was the founder and became the Director of the A. Philip Randolph Institute, which coordinated the AFL-CIO's work on civil rights and economic justice. He became a regular columnist for the AFL-CIO newspaper.

On the political side of the labor movement, Rustin increased his visibility as a leader of the American social democracy. In early 1972, he became a national co-chairman of the Socialist Party of America. In December 1972, when the Socialist Party changed its name to Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA) by a vote of 73–34, Rustin continued to serve as national co-chairman, along with Charles S. Zimmerman of the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU).^[38] In his opening speech to the December 1972 Convention, Co-Chairman Rustin called for SDUSA to organize against the "reactionary policies of the Nixon Administration"; Rustin also criticized the "irresponsibility and élitism of the 'New Politics' liberals".^[38] In later years, Rustin served as the national chairman of SDUSA.

During the 1960s, Rustin was a member^[39] of the League for Industrial Democracy.^[40] He would remain a member for years, and became vice president during the 1980s.^[41]

Foreign policy

Like many liberals and socialists, Rustin supported President Lyndon B. Johnson's containment policy against communism, while criticizing specific conduct of this policy. In particular, to maintain independent labor unions and political opposition in Vietnam, Rustin and others gave critical support to U.S. military intervention in the Vietnam War, while calling for a negotiated peace treaty and democratic elections. Rustin criticized the specific conduct of the war, though. For instance, in a fundraising letter sent to War Resisters League supporters in 1964, Rustin wrote of being "angered and humiliated by the kind of war being waged, a war of torture, a war in which civilians are being machine gunned from the air, and in which American napalm bombs are being dropped on the villages."^[42]

Along with Allard Lowenstein and Norman Thomas, Rustin worked with the CIA-sponsored Committee on Free Elections in the Dominican Republic, which lent international credibility to a 1966 ballot effectively rigged against the socialist former president, Juan Bosch.^[43]

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin worked as a human rights and election monitor for Freedom House.^[44]

In 1970, Rustin called for the U.S. to send military jets in the fight against Arab states by Israel; referring to a New York Times article he authored, Rustin wrote to Prime Minister Golda Meir "...I hope that the ad will also have an effect on a serious domestic question: namely, the relations between the Jewish and the Negro communities in America." Rustin was concerned about unity between two groups that he argued faced discrimination in America and abroad, and also believed that Israel's democratic ideals were proof that justice and equality would prevail in the Arab territories despite the atrocities of war. His former colleagues in the peace movement considered it to be a profound betrayal of Rustin's nonviolent ideals.^[45]

Rustin maintained his strongly anti-Soviet and anti-communist views later in his life, especially with regard to Africa. Rustin co-wrote with Carl Gershman (a former director of Social Democrats, USA and future Ronald Reagan appointee) an essay entitled "Africa, Soviet Imperialism & the Retreat of American Power," in which he decried Russian and Cuban involvement in the Angolan Civil War and defended the military intervention by apartheid South Africa on behalf of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). "And if a South African force did intervene at the urging of black leaders and on the side of the forces that clearly represent the black majority in Angola, to counter a non-African army of Cubans ten times its size, by what standard of political judgment is this immoral?" Rustin accused the Soviet Union of a classic imperialist agenda in Africa in pursuit of economic resources and vital sea lanes, and called the Carter Administration "hypocritical" for claiming to be committed to the welfare of blacks while doing too little to thwart Russian and Cuban expansion throughout Africa.^[46]

In 1976, Rustin helped found the Committee on the Present Danger (CPD) with Paul Nitze, leader of the CIAs Team B project. CPD promoted Team B's controversial intelligence claims about Soviet foreign policy, using them as an argument against arms control agreements such as SALT II. This cemented Rustin's leading role in the neoconservative movement.^[47]

Soviet Jewry movement

The plight of Jews in the Soviet Union reminded Rustin of the struggles that blacks faced in the United States. Soviet Jews faced many of the same forms of discrimination in employment, education and housing, while also being prisoners within their own country by being denied the chance to emigrate by Soviet authorities.^[48] After seeing the injustice that Soviet Jews faced, Rustin became a leading voice in advocating for the movement of Jews from the Soviet Union to Israel. He worked closely with Senator Henry Jackson of Washington, who introduced legislation that tied trade relations with the Soviet Union to their treatment of Jews.^[49] In 1966 he chaired the historic Ad hoc Commission on Rights of Soviet Jews organized by the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, leading a panel of six jurors in the Commission’s public tribunal on Jewish life in the Soviet Union. Members of the panel included Telford Taylor, the Nuremberg war trial prosecutor and Columbia University professor of law; Dr. John C. Bennett, president of the Union Theological Seminary; Reverend George B. Ford, pastor emeritus of the Corpus Christi Church; Samuel Fishman representing United Automobile Workers; and Norman Thomas, veteran Socialist leader.^[50] The commission collected testimonies from Soviet Jews and compiled them into a report that was delivered to the secretary general of the United Nations. The report urged the international community to demand that the Soviet authorities allow Jews to practice their religion, preserve their culture and to emigrate from the USSR at their will.^[50] The testimonies from Soviet Jews were published by Moshe Decter, the executive secretary of the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, in a book— Redemption! Jewish freedom letters from Russia, with a foreword by Rustin.^[51] Through the 1970s and 1980s Rustin wrote several articles on the subject of Soviet Jewry and appeared at Soviet Jewry movement rallies, demonstrations, vigils, and conferences, in the United States and abroad.^[52] He co-sponsored the National Interreligious Task Force on Soviet Jewry. Rustin allied with Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, an outspoken advocate for Soviet Jewry, and worked closely with Senator Henry Jackson, informing the Jackson–Vanik amendment—a vital legislation that restricted United States trade with the Soviet Union in relation to its treatment of Jews.^[49]

Gay rights

He also testified on behalf of New York State's Gay Rights Bill. In 1986, he gave a speech "The New Niggers Are Gays," in which he asserted,

While there is a recurring tendency to describe Rustin as a pioneering "out gay man" the truth is more complex. In 1986, Rustin was invited to contribute to the book In the Life: A Black Gay Anthology. He declined, explaining

Rustin did not engage in any gay rights activism until the 1980s. He was urged to do so by his partner Walter Naegle, who has said that "I think that if I hadn't been in the office at that time, when these invitations [from gay organizations] came in, he probably wouldn't have done them."^[55]

Due to the lack of marriage equality at the time Rustin and partner Walter Naegle took an unconventional step to solidify their partnership and protect their unification. In 1982 Rustin adopted Naegle, 30 years old at the time, in order to legalize their union. Naegle explains,

Death and beliefs

Rustin died on August 24, 1987, of a perforated appendix. An obituary in The New York Times reported, "Looking back at his career, Mr. Rustin, a Quaker, once wrote: 'The principal factors which influenced my life are 1) nonviolent tactics; 2) constitutional means; 3) democratic procedures; 4) respect for human personality; 5) a belief that all people are one.' "^[58] Rustin was survived by Walter Naegle, his partner of ten years.^[59]^[60]

President Ronald Reagan issued a statement on Rustin's death, praising his work for civil rights and "for human rights throughout the world." He added that Rustin "was denounced by former friends, because he never gave up his conviction that minorities in America could and would succeed based on their individual merit."^[3]

Legacy

Rustin "faded from the shortlist of well-known civil rights lions," in part because he was active behind the scenes, and also because of public discomfort with his sexual orientation and former communist membership.^[29] In addition, Rustin's tilt toward neo-conservatism in the late 1960s led him into disagreement with most civil rights leaders. But, the 2003 documentary film Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin, a Sundance Festival Grand Jury Prize nominee,^[63] and the March 2012 centennial of Rustin's birth have contributed to renewed recognition of his extensive contributions.

Rustin served as chairman of Social Democrats, USA, which, The Washington Post wrote in 2013, "was a breeding ground for many neoconservatives".^[64] In the 1970s, he was among the second-age neoconservatives, and in 1979, was elevated to vice-chair of the Coalition for a Democratic Majority, an organization that helped revive the Committee on the Present Danger.^[65]^[66]

According to Daniel Richman, former clerk for United States Supreme Court justice Thurgood Marshall, Marshall's friendship with Rustin, who was open about his homosexuality, played a significant role in Marshall's dissent from the court's 5–4 decision upholding the constitutionality of state sodomy laws in the later overturned 1986 case Bowers v. Hardwick.^[67]

Several buildings have been named in honor of Rustin, including the Bayard Rustin Educational Complex located in Chelsea, Manhattan;^[68] Bayard Rustin High School in his hometown of West Chester, Pennsylvania; Bayard Rustin Library at the Affirmations Gay/Lesbian Community Center in Ferndale, Michigan; and the Bayard Rustin Social Justice Center in Conway, Arkansas. Rustin is one of two men who have both participated in the Penn Relays and had a school, West Chester Rustin High School, named in his honor that participates in the Relays.^[69]

In July 2007, with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin, a group of San Francisco Bay Area African-American LGBT community leaders officially formed the Bayard Rustin LGBT Coalition (BRC), to promote greater participation in the electoral process, advance civil and human rights issues, and promote the legacy of Rustin. In addition, the Bayard Rustin Center for LGBTQA Activism, Awareness and Reconciliation is located at Guilford College, a Quaker school.^[70] Formerly the Queer and Allied Resource Center, the center was rededicated in March 2011 with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin and featured a keynote address by social justice activist Mandy Carter.^[71]

A 1998 anthology movie, Out of the Past, featured letters and archive footage of Rustin.^[72]

A Pennsylvania State Historical Marker is placed at Lincoln and Montgomery Avenues, West Chester, Pennsylvania; the marker commemorating his accomplishments lies on the grounds of Henderson High School, which he attended.^[73]

In 2012, Rustin was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people.^[74]

Rustin was posthumously awarded honorary membership into Delta Phi Upsilon, a fraternity for gay, bisexual and progressive men.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

In 2013, Rustin was selected as an honoree in the United States Department of Labor Hall of Honor.^[75]

On August 8, 2013, President Barack Obama announced that he would posthumously award Rustin the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest award in the United States. The citation in the press release stated:

At the White House ceremony on November 20, 2013, President Obama presented Rustin's award to Walter Naegle, his partner of 10 years at the time of Rustin's death.^[6]

In 2016, the Greensboro Mural Project, created a mural in honor of Bayard Rustin located at New Garden Friends Meeting in Greensboro, North Carolina.^[77] John Hunter designed the mural, their first, honoring the legacy of Bayard Rustin.

On April 12, 2018, the Montgomery County Board of Education in Maryland voted to name the Bayard Rustin Elementary School after Rustin.

Publications

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|title=Bayard Rustin|url=https://www.nps.gov/people/bayard-rustin.htm|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=June 27, 2016}}
2. ^¹{{cite news |author1=Michel Martin, Emma Bowman |title=In Newly Found Audio, A Forgotten Civil Rights Leader Says Coming Out 'Was An Absolute Necessity' |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/01/06/682598649/in-newly-found-audio-a-forgotten-civil-rights-leader-says-coming-out-was-an-abso |accessdate=January 7, 2019 |agency=NPR |date=January 6, 2019}}
3. ^¹Associated Press, "Reagan Praises Deceased Civil Rights Leader" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331134656/http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1987/Reagan-Praises-Deceased-Civil-Rights-Leader/id-96a87043e0eba7ae2215632d0e5230a5 |date=March 31, 2016 }}
4. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard#v=snippet&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false Justin Vaïsse, Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (Harvard University Press, 2010), p.71-75] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913115837/https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard#v=snippet&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false |date=September 13, 2016 }}
5. ^"Table: The Three Ages of Neoconservatism" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320161743/http://neoconservatism.vaisse.net/doku.php?id=start#tablethe_three_ages_of_neoconservatism |date=March 20, 2016 }}, Neoconservatism: Biography of Movement by Justin Vaisse, official website]
6. ^¹{{cite web|author=Justin Snow |url=http://www.metroweekly.com/2013/11/obama-honors-bayard-rustin-and/ |title=Obama honors Bayard Rustin and Sally Ride with Medal of Freedom |publisher=metroweekly.com |accessdate=November 21, 2013}}
7. ^¹²{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History|last = Carol|first = George|publisher = Gale|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-02-865816-2|location = Detroit|pages = 1993–1994}}
8. ^¹²Bayard Rustin Biography {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430150408/http://www.biography.com/people/bayard-rustin-9467932 |date=April 30, 2016 }}, (2015), Biography.com. Retrieved 07:37, February 28, 2015
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mainlinetoday.com/core/pagetools.php?pageid=10587&url=/Main-Line-Today/October-2013/Bayard-Rustins-Civil-Rights-Legacy-Began-with-Grandmother-Julia-Rustin/&mode=print |title=Bayard Rustin's Civil Rights Legacy Began with Grandmother Julia Rustin |first=Mark E. |last=Dixon |date=October 2013 |work=Main Line Today}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USArustin.htm |title=Bayard Rustin Biography |publisher=Spartacus Educational |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419214532/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USArustin.htm |archivedate=April 19, 2014}}
11. ^{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-02-01/entertainment/ct-ent-0202-museums-bayard-rustin-20120202_1_walter-naegle-bayard-rustin-brother-outsider |title=Not-so-secret life of gay civil rights leader Bayard Rustin |date=February 1, 2012 |first=Leslie |last=Mann |work=Chicago Tribune}}
12. ^D'Emilio 2003, pp. 21, 24.
13. ^D'Emilio 2003, pp. 31–2.
14. ^{{cite book|last=Kazin|first=Michael|title=The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsWLGcZ7pyAC&pg=PA112|accessdate=November 6, 2011|date=August 21, 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3946-9|page=112}}
15. ^August Meier and Elliot Rudwick. Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW.
16. ^¹²{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of African American History|last = Smith|first = Eric Ledell|publisher = ABC-CLIO, LLC|year = 2010|isbn = 978-1-85109-769-2|location = Santa Barbara, CA|pages = 1002–1004}}
17. ^{{cite journal | journal = Fellowship | last = Rustin | first = Bayard | date = July 1942 | title = Non-Violence vs. Jim Crow}} reprinted in {{cite book|last1=Carson|first1=Clayborne|authorlink1=Clayborne Carson|last2=Garrow|first2=David J.|authorlink2=David J. Garrow|last3=Kovach|first3=Bill|authorlink3=Bill Kovach|title=Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j8OAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=September 13, 2011|year=2003|publisher=Library of America|pages=15–18}}
18. ^{{cite book|author=David Hardiman|title=Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1BMOHA2D7AC&pg=PA256|year=2003|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-712-5|page=256}}
19. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973832475|title=Harambee City : the Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the rise of Black Power populism|last=Nishani,|first=Frazier,|date=2017|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=|isbn=9781610756013|location=Fayetteville|pages=3–26|oclc=973832475}}
20. ^from liner notes, Fellowship Records 102
21. ^Podair 2009, pp 27
22. ^{{cite journal | journal = The Crisis | date = September 1947 | title = Not So Deep Are the Roots | last = Peck | first = James | authorlink = James Peck (pacifist)}} reprinted in {{cite book|last1=Carson|first1=Clayborne|last2=Garrow|first2=David J.|last3=Kovach|first3=Bill|title=Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j8OAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=September 13, 2011|year=2003|publisher=Library of America|pages=92–97}}
23. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973832475|title=Harambee City : the Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the rise of Black Power populism|last=Nishani,|first=Frazier,|date=2017|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=|isbn=9781610756013|location=Fayetteville|pages=43, 124|oclc=973832475}}
24. ^¹{{Cite journal|url = |title = Remembering Bayard Rustin|last = D'Emilio|first = John|date = March 2006|journal = Magazine of History|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}
25. ^{{cite web |url=http://afsc.org/document/speak-truth-power |title=Available online from |publisher=AFSC |date=March 2, 1955 |accessdate=November 1, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103150809/http://afsc.org/document/speak-truth-power |archivedate=November 3, 2013 |df= }}
26. ^"Bayard Rustin – Who Is This Man" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516061236/http://stateofthereunion.com/home/season-2/bayard-rustin |date=May 16, 2013 }}, State of the Reunion, radio show, aired February 2011 on NPR, 1:40–2:10. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
27. ^{{cite web|last1=Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities|title=Bayard Rustin|url=http://whospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu/interview/bayard-rustin|website=Robert Penn Warren's Who Speaks for the Negro? Archive|accessdate=February 11, 2015}}
28. ^Lewis 1978, p. 131.
29. ^¹²³{{cite news |first = Steve |last = Hendrix |url =https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/bayard-rustin-organizer-of-the-march-on-washington-was-crucial-to-the-movement/2011/08/17/gIQA0oZ7UJ_story.html |title =Bayard Rustin, organizer of the March on Washington, was crucial to the movement |work=The Washington Post |date = August 21, 2011 |accessdate = August 22, 2011}}
30. ^Life Magazine {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105052431/http://www.life.com/image/52259555/in-gallery/23101#index/0 |date=November 5, 2009 }}, September 6, 1963.
31. ^¹²³⁴Daniel Perlstein, "The dead end of despair: Bayard Rustin, the 1968 New York school crisis, and the struggle for racial justice" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203513/http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/justice/downloads/pdf/the_end_of_despair.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}, New York City government
32. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=CUI6tY9RJUYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=pillar+of+fire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NI0HVZrZMsHaUsWWgaAP&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=shachtman&f=false Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963-1965 (Simon & Schuster, 1999), p. 292-293] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406210727/https://books.google.com/books?id=CUI6tY9RJUYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=pillar+of+fire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NI0HVZrZMsHaUsWWgaAP&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=shachtman&f=false |date=April 6, 2016 }}
33. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=uru7tdlv3FgC&pg=PT83&lpg=PT83&dq=Max+Shachtman,+mississippi+freedom+democratic+party&source=bl&ots=5NMPBn923s&sig=m_t9yOSIef8v7V8DbfY_ELWTIPE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=t4MHVf-aAcuzUfmBhPgF&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Max%20Shachtman%2C%20mississippi%20freedom%20democratic%20party&f=false Martin Duberman, A Saving Remnant: The Radical Lives of Barbara Deming and David McReynolds (The New Press, 2013)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417214349/https://books.google.com/books?id=uru7tdlv3FgC&pg=PT83&lpg=PT83&dq=Max+Shachtman%2C+mississippi+freedom+democratic+party&source=bl&ots=5NMPBn923s&sig=m_t9yOSIef8v7V8DbfY_ELWTIPE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=t4MHVf-aAcuzUfmBhPgF&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg |date=April 17, 2016 }}
34. ^Staughton Lynd, another civil rights activist, responded with an article entitled, "Coalition Politics or Nonviolent Revolution?"
35. ^¹Randall Kennedy, "From Protest to Patronage" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104194411/http://www.thenation.com/article/protest-patronage?page=0%2C3 |date=January 4, 2016 }}, The Nation, September 11, 2003
36. ^[https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/21/specials/podhoretz-25years.html Walter Goodman, "Podhoretz on 25 Years at Commentary"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305093450/http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/21/specials/podhoretz-25years.html |date=March 5, 2016 }}, The New York Times, January 31, 1985
37. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBH5GRFw-fkC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=bayard.+sell+out.+grassroots&source=bl&ots=aR5Dykb4ab&sig=hlwOK0fzT3eip3JYWwoXS4-sGGE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilvY6-jN7YAhUN7lMKHXd8CgoQ6AEwBHoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=bayard.%20sell%20out.%20grassroots&f=false|title=Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer|last=Podair|first=Jerald|date=December 16, 2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=|isbn=9780742564800|location=|pages=64, 77|language=en}}
38. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/12/31/archives/socialist-party-now-the-social-democrats-usa.html |title=Socialist Party Now the Social Democrats, U.S.A.|date=December 31, 1972 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=February 8, 2010}} (limited free access)
39. ^{{cite book|last1=Forman|first1=James|title=The Making of Black Revolutionaries|date=1972|publisher=University of Washington Press|pages=220}}
40. ^{{cite book|last1=Carson|first1=Clayborne|title=In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s|date=1981|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=29}}
41. ^{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/WorkersRightsEastAndWestAComparativeStudyOfTradeUnionAnd|last1=Karatnycky|first1=Adrian|last2=Motyl|first2=Alexander J.|last3=Sturmthal|first3=Adolph|title=Workers' rights, East and West : a comparative study of trade union and workers' rights in Western democracies and Eastern Europe |date=1980|publisher=Transaction Publishing / League for Industrial Democracy|pages=150}}
42. ^Rustin 2012, pp. 291-2
43. ^[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/20/books/review/Glazer-t.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0 Nathan Glazer "A Word From Our Sponsor: Review of Hugh Wilford's The Mighty Wurlitzer" The New York Times, January 20, 2008] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909023200/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/20/books/review/Glazer-t.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0 |date=September 9, 2015 }}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=249|title=Freedom House: A History|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823010319/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=249|archivedate=August 23, 2011|df=}}
45. ^Matthew Arlyck "Review of I Must Resist: Letters of Bayard Rustin" Fellowship of Reconciliation website {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419182230/http://forusa.org/fellowship/2013/summer/book-review-i-must-resist/12390 |date=April 19, 2016 }}
46. ^{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/download/AfricaSovietImperialismAndTheRetreatOfAmericanPower/SDP2.pdf |title=Africa, Soviet Imperialism & The Retreat Of American Power |publisher=Social Democrats, U.S.A.|author=Bayard Rustin and Carl Gershman |date=October 1977|accessdate=November 1, 2013}}
47. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=_JX04sBnEWUC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=committee+on+the+present+danger+members,+rustin&source=bl&ots=McPgDKvLmg&sig=XNcW-pyaNXbU4KoEwBa57v54vl4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=viQcVfa_LYqSsQS0l4CYCw&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false John Ehrman, The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs, 1945-1994 (Yale University Press, 1996), p. 107-114] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610060721/https://books.google.com/books?id=_JX04sBnEWUC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=committee+on+the+present+danger+members%2C+rustin&source=bl&ots=McPgDKvLmg&sig=XNcW-pyaNXbU4KoEwBa57v54vl4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=viQcVfa_LYqSsQS0l4CYCw&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCQ |date=June 10, 2016 }}
48. ^Podair, Jerald E. "Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer" (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2009). {{ISBN|074254513X}}
49. ^¹Podair 2009, pp. 99
50. ^¹{{Cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1966/12/05/archive/commission-to-present-findings-on-soviet-jewry-to-u-n|title=Commission to Present Findings on Soviet Jewry to U.N.|date=December 5, 1966|website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|access-date=July 15, 2016}}
51. ^{{Cite book|title=Redemption! Jewish freedom letters from Russia|last=Decter|first=Moshe|publisher=American Jewish Conference on Soviet Jewry|year=1966|isbn=|location=New York|pages=2–3|via=}}
52. ^{{Cite book|title=Shared Dreams: Martin Luther King, Jr. & the Jewish Community|last=Shneier|first=Marc|publisher=Jewish Lights|year=2008|isbn=1580232736|location=New York|pages=117|via=}}
53. ^{{cite web |title=Gays Are the New Niggers |url=http://killingthebuddha.com/mag/damnation/gays-are-the-new-niggers/ |date=June 26, 2009 |author=Osagyefo Uhuru Sekou |publisher=Killing the Buddha |accessdate=2 July 2009}}
54. ^Yasmin Nair, "Bayard Rustin: A complex legacy" Windy City Times, March 3, 2012 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414212310/http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/lgbt/Bayard-Rustin-A-complex-legacy/36990.html |date=April 14, 2016 }}
55. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016235132/https://books.google.com/books?id=C1xJ5ONWltYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bayard+rustin,+gay,+book,+voluntarily,+closet|title=Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin - John D'Emilio - Google Книги|author=|date=October 16, 2015|publisher=|accessdate=October 22, 2018}}
56. ^{{Cite web|title = Long Before Same-Sex Marriage, 'Adopted Son' Could Mean 'Life Partner'|url = https://www.npr.org/2015/06/28/418187875/long-before-same-sex-marriage-adopted-son-could-mean-life-partner|website = NPR.org|accessdate = 2015-11-16|first = Weekend Edition|last = Sunday}}
57. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.out.com/news-opinion/2013/08/28/bayard-rustin-walter-naegle-partner-gay-civil-rights-activist-march-washington |title=The Personal Life of Bayard Rustin |first=Robert |last=Drayton |date=January 18, 2016 |work=Out}}
58. ^[https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/25/obituaries/bayard-rustin-is-dead-at-75-pacifist-and-a-rights-activist.html "Bayard Rustin Is Dead at 75; Pacifist and a Rights Activist"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014062020/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/25/obituaries/bayard-rustin-is-dead-at-75-pacifist-and-a-rights-activist.html |date=October 14, 2016 }}, New York Times
59. ^{{cite web|url=http://rustin.org/?page_id=11 |title=Brother Outsider — A Closer Look at Bayard Rustin, by Walter Naegle |publisher=Rustin.org |date= |accessdate=November 1, 2013}}
60. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.outsports.com/2009/2/15/3862980/bayard-rustin-offensive-lineman-for-freedom |title= Bayard Rustin: Offensive lineman for freedom|publisher=Outsports.com |author=Patricia Nell Warren|date=February 15, 2009 |accessdate=November 14, 2013}}
61. ^{{cite web | title =Vietnam: A Television History; Homefront USA; Interview with Bayard Rustin, 1982 | work = | publisher =WGBH-TV | date = October 7, 1982| url =http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_7DF837881783464B8614DDD69B5F8086 | accessdate =June 4, 2017 }}
62. ^{{cite web | title =The Bayard Rustin Papers| work = | publisher =Library of Congress | date = August 28, 2013| url =https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=6026 | accessdate =June 4, 2017 }}
63. ^{{cite web|url=http://rustin.org|title=Brother Outsider – Home}}
64. ^[https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/08/28/meet-the-gay-socialist-pacifist-who-planned-the-1963-march-on-washington/ Dylan Matthews, "Meet Bayard Rustin"], Washingtonpost.com, August 28, 2013
65. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard#v=snippet&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false Justin Vaïsse, Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 91] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913115837/https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard#v=snippet&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false |date=September 13, 2016 }}
66. ^"Coalition for a Democratic Majority" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083456/http://www.rightweb.irc-online.org/articles/display/Coalition_for_a_Democratic_Majority |date=March 4, 2016 }}, Right Web, Institute for Policy Studies
67. ^{{cite book|last1=Murdoch|first1=Joyce|last2=Price|first2=Deb|title=Courting Justice: Gay Men and Lesbians v. The Supreme Court|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mH5mzdA1gtMC&pg=PA292|accessdate=October 13, 2011|date=May 8, 2002|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-01514-6|page=292}}
68. ^"H.S. 440 Bayard Rustin Educational Complex" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401143311/http://insideschools.org/index12.php?fs=91&str=H.S.%20440%20Bayard%20Rustin%20Educati...&formtype=name |date=April 1, 2016 }} at InsideSchools.org
69. ^{{cite news |last=Hoover |first=Brett |date=2016 |title=What's in a name |url=http://news.pennrelaysonline.com/about-2/whats-in-a-name/ |newspaper=pennrelaysonline |location=63rd school listed on page |access-date=February 29, 2016}}
70. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/The-Bayard-Rustin-Center-for-Lgbtqa-Activism-Education-and-Reconciliation/178474272198950 |title=The Bayard Rustin Center for Lgbtqa Activism, Education and Reconciliation – Community – Greensboro |publisher=Facebook |date=September 21, 2011}}
71. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.guilford.edu/about_guilford/news_and_publications/releases/brc_opening.html |title=Bayard Rustin Center for LGBTQA Activism, Awareness and Reconciliation to Be Dedicated March 16 |publisher=Guilford College }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
72. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0141699/|title=Out of the Past (1998)|publisher=IMDb}}
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=8243 |title=Bayard Rustin Marker |publisher=Hmdb.org}}
74. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legacyprojectchicago.org/2012_INDUCTEES.html |title=2012 Inductees |publisher=The Legacy Project}}
75. ^{{cite web|title=Hall of Honor Inductee, Bayard Rustin|url=http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/2013_rustin.htm|website=The Department of Labor's Hall of Honor|publisher=United States Department of Labor|accessdate=October 12, 2014}}
76. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/08/08/president-obama-names-presidential-medal-freedom-recipients|title=President Obama Names Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients|publisher=Office of the Press Secretary, The White House|date=August 8, 2013|accessdate=August 8, 2013}}
77. ^{{cite web|url=https://greensboromuralproject.com|title=The Greensboro Mural Project|author=|date=|website=The Greensboro Mural Project|accessdate=October 22, 2018}}