| 词条 | Filial piety in Buddhism |
| 释义 |
Filial piety is an important aspect of Buddhist ethics and a foundation of Buddhist morality.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=225}} Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later, other Buddhist studies scholars such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen have made a case to argue that filial piety was part of Buddhist teaching since early times. Filial piety is an important value in a number of Asian cultures, some of which are informed by Buddhism, such as Thailand. It has been observed that Thai people take care of their elderly parents with filial piety, and a sense of "respect, honor, fidelity, devotion, dutifulness, and sacrifice".{{sfn |Wiseso |Fongkaew |Pinyokham |Spiers |2017 |p=326}} In Buddhist textsIn early Buddhism, filial piety was an important part of Buddhist ethics, though not as fundamental to ethics as it was in early Confucianism.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |pp=9{{en dash}}10}} In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=214}} Repaying the debt of gratitudeIn the early discourse called Kataññu Sutta, the Buddha describes through several metaphors the difficulty in repaying the gratitude of one's parents through material means only. Eventually, he concludes that it is only possible to repay one's gratitude by teaching them spiritual qualities, such as faith in Buddhism, morality, generosity and wisdom.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |pp=214{{en dash}}5}} Though this discourse was translated and cited in many Buddhist traditions and schools, it came to be more emphasized with the arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India in the 1st century CE.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=215}} In a second early discourse called Sabrahmā Sutta, parents are described as worthy of respect and gifts, because they have created their children, and were the ones who educated their children in their formative years.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |pp=216{{en dash}}7}} Furthermore, parents have provided the basic requirements for the child to survive.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |p=15}} Buddhist studies scholar Guang Xing believes a comparison is drawn here between the devotion to Brahma, and the devotion toward one's parents, of which the latter is considered better, because they are considered the real creators.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |pp=14{{en dash}}5}} Parents are also compared to "Worthy Ones" and Buddhas, which is similar to the filial devotion expressed in the Hindu Taittirı̄ya Upanishad.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |pp=216{{en dash}}7}} In a third early discourse called Mahāyañña ('great sacrifice') in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha compares reverence toward one's parents, family and religious leaders to fire worship, and concludes that those people are much more useful and meaningful to tend to than the fire.{{refn |See {{harvtxt |Xing |2013 |p=15}} and {{harvtxt |Xing |2016 |p=217}}. Only the 2013 study mentions the Anguttara Nikaya and the translation of the title.}} The parents are mentioned here as first and foremost.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |p=15}} Other early descriptionsSome Early Buddhist Texts describe the children's devotion toward their parents as a good deed that will reap religious merit, lead to praise by the wise, and finally, a rebirth in heaven. It is described as a fundamental good deed, and is in some Āgama texts compared to making offerings to a Buddha-to-be. By contrast, killing one's parents is considered one of the most gravest deeds to do, leading to an immediate destiny to hell.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=218}}{{sfn |Xing |2013 |p=16}} People who had done so were not allowed to become members of the monastic community, and if they already were but were found out later to have killed a parent, they were expelled.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |p=17}} Apart from merit, in many Āgama texts, filial piety is said to lead to an orderly and harmonious society.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=219}} In Pāli texts, the belief that children are indebted to their parents is a form of right view, part of the Buddhist eight-fold path.{{sfn |Thanissaro |2010 |p=7}} In canonical and post-canonical narrativesA well-known story that expresses filial piety, is the Buddha's journey to the second Buddhist heaven to teach his mother, who has died when giving birth to him. It is found in both the Pāli commentaries and the Āgamas. On a similar note, the Pāli tradition relates how the Buddha teaches his father Suddhodana on several occasions, eventually helping his father to attain enlightenment. Further, the Mahāyāna tradition has it that the Buddha organizes a funeral ceremony for his father out of piety. The Buddha is not only depicted as showing filial piety to his natural parents, but also his foster mother Mahāpajāpatī. Buddhist studies scholar Reiko Ohnuma has argued that the Buddha's main motivation to allow his foster mother to become a full-fledged Buddhist nun, and thereby starting the order of nuns, was gratitude toward his foster mother.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |pp=219{{en dash}}220}} In stories of the previous lives of the Buddha, there are several examples that illustrate filial piety. In one life found in several Buddhist collections, the Buddha-to-be is Śyāma, a filial son who takes care of his blind parents in their old age. This story was very popular in Buddhist India, as derived from epigraphical evidence from the first centuries CE.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=220{{en dash}}1}} In the Pāli version of the story, it is prefaced by the life of a man who ordains as a monk. After having ordained for 17 years, he discovers his parents are abused by their servants and are starving. He then decides to share the food he offers with them regularly, for which he is criticized by his fellow monks. His fellow monks consider this inappropriate for a Buddhist monk and report this to the Buddha. The Buddha, however, speaks high praise of the monk's filial piety, and the Buddha relates his own previous life as Śyāma. In this previous life, the Buddha-to-be was taking care of his blind parents.{{sfn |Wilson |2014 |pp=190{{en dash}}1}} There is also a story of Maudgalyayāna, one of the main disciples of the Buddha, who is described saving his mother from hell by sharing his religious merits.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=220{{en dash}}1}} In Mahāyāna textsEarly Buddhist texts, such as the Māta Sutta of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, mention that every living being has once been one's relative in a previous life in the cycle of birth and rebirth. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, therefore, helping to liberate other living beings from suffering came to be seen as a form of filial piety, since it was believed that all beings had once been one's parents.{{sfn |Xing |2013 |p=18}} HistoryEarly Buddhist historyInitially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later, other Buddhist studies scholars such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen have made a case to argue that filial piety was part of Buddhist teaching since early times, though Strong did regard it as a compromise to Brahmanical ethics.{{sfn |Xing |2016|pp=212{{en dash}}3}}{{sfn |Xing |2005 |p=82}} Introduction of Buddhism in ChinaBuddhism stressed individual salvation, which went against the Confucian tenets, which mostly focused on family life and society.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=223}} Buddhism advocated monasticism and celibacy, which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view, because it was considered a child's duty to continue the parental line.{{sfn |Traylor |1988 |p=110}} Therefore, in early medieval China ({{circa|100{{en dash}}600}}), Buddhism was heavily criticized for what Confucianists and neo-Confucianists perceived as a disregard for Confucian virtues and role ethics among family members. In addition, Buddhist monks were without descendants, and therefore did not create the offspring necessary to continue the ancestor worship in next generations.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=355}} Celibacy did not exist in China before the arrival of Buddhism.{{sfn |Zürcher |2007 |p=281}} Furthermore, Buddhist monks shaved their heads, which was perceived as a lack of filial piety.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=355}} Another problem was that early Chinese Buddhist monks did not formally pay homage to the emperor, which was seen as going against social propriety and was connected with the idea that Buddhism did not adhere to filial piety. This already became a problem in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (265–420).{{sfn |Xing |2016 |pp=223{{en dash}}4}} Apologetics (3rd–5th century)When Buddhism was introduced to China, it was partly redefined to support filial piety.{{sfn |Hsu |O'Connor |Lee |2009 |p=162}}{{sfn |Walraven |2012 |p=107}} The Mouzi Lihuolun (牟子理惑論), a work defending Buddhism against critics, presented arguments why Buddhist monks did practice filial piety, by closely reading the works of Confucius himself.{{refn |group=note |The Guiyangtu (跪羊图) and Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra[1] are also Buddhist works portraying lay householder duties and obligations in contrast with pure monastic renunciation.}} The Mouzi Lihuolun compares the life of a Buddhist monk with a pious son who saves his father from drowning: A long time ago, the Ch'i people crossed a large river in a boat and it happened that their father fell into the water. His sons rolled up their sleeves, seized his head, and turned him upside down, forcing the water out of his mouth, thus bringing their father back to life. Now, to seize one's father's head and turn him upside down is certainly not very filial. Yet they could have done nothing better to save their father's life. If they had folded their hands and practiced the norm of filial sons, their father's life would have been lost in the waters.{{sfn |Keenan |1994| p=83}} The behavior of a Buddhist monk is similar. While on the surface the Buddhist seems to reject and abandon his parents, the pious Buddhist is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment.{{cn |date=March 2019}} In a way, Buddhist claimed therefore that a Buddhist monk benefited his parents, and in superior ways than Confucianism.{{sfn |Walraven |2012 |p=107}} The Mouzi Lihuolun also attempted to counter charges that not having children was a violation of good ethics. It was pointed out that Confucius himself had praised a number of ascetic sages who had not had children or family, but because of their wisdom and sacrifice were still perceived as ethical by Confucius. The argument that Buddhist filial piety concerns itself with the parent's soul is the most important one. The same essential argument was made later by Sun Chuo, who argued that Buddhists monks (far from working solely for their own benefit) were working to ensure the salvation of all people and aiding their family by doing so.{{sfn |Zürcher |2007|p=134}} Huiyuan (334{{en dash}}416) continued this line of reasoning, arguing that if one member leaves the household to be a monk, then all other members of the family would benefit, having good fortune and leading superior lives.{{cn |date=March 2019}} Huiyuan also argued that Buddhist monks did not have to pay homage to the emperor in "a manifested way", but just in heart and mind. In this reasoning he was supported by some government officials and prominent lay people.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=224}} In order for Confucianists to accept Buddhism more easily, however, during the Han dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE), Chinese Buddhist leaders introduced the teaching of the four debts that a person should repay: the debt to one's parents, to all living beings, to one's ruler and to the Buddha. Perhaps inspired by Brahmanical teachings, Chinese Buddhists hoped that edifying people about the four debts would help for Buddhism to become more accepted in China.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=222}} Adaptation (6th century)These philosophical arguments were not entirely successful in convincing the Chinese that the behavior advocated by Buddhism was correct, and so other methods were employed. To more directly point out the Buddhist's filial nature, passages and parables about filial piety in Northwest Indian and Central Asian Buddhism became very prominent in Chinese Buddhism.{{refn |See {{harvtxt |Ch'en |1973 |page=18}}. {{harvtxt|Knapp |2014 |pp=137, 140}} specifies the region in India.}} The story of Śyāma ({{zh|c=晱子|p=Shanzi}}) was an example of this. The story was often mentioned in the Chinese canon of Buddhist texts, was included in a number of different anthologies such as the Liudu Jijing and even the Confucian tradition of twenty-four stories of filial piety (1260–1368).{{sfn |Ch'en |1973 |pages=23, 82{{en dash}}6}}{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=221}} A similar story of Sujāti ({{zh |p=Xusheti|c=須闍提}}) relates that she cut off her own flesh to feed her parents, to keep them alive. During the T'ang dynasty (618{{en dash}}907), the story gained much popularity and it was eventually transformed into a Confucian classic tale as well. Furthermore, it was a way for Chinese Buddhists to make a statement that Buddhist filial piety was more superior than Confucian filial piety. Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body.{{sfn |Knapp |2014 |pp=135{{en dash}}6, 141, 145}} As for the story of Maudgalyayāna, this was incorporated in the Ullambana Sūtra, and led to the establishment of Ghost Festival in China in the 6th century.{{refn |See {{harvtxt |Xing |2016 |p=221}} and {{harvtxt |Wilson |2014 |p=194}}. Only Xing mentions the Sūtra.}} The festival was held in the seventh moon of the Chinese calendar, and commemorated Maudgalyayāna ({{zh|p=Mulian}}) saving his mother.{{sfn |Idema |2009 |pp=xvii{{en dash}}xviii}} In China, this story became very popular. Though already part of the Indian Buddhist tradition, East Asian Buddhism raised it from a peripheral role to a central one.{{sfn |Berezkin |2015 |loc=Ch. 7}}{{sfn |Ladwig |2012 |p=137}}{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=221}} Buddhists attempted to show that filial children could still take care of their parents in the afterlife, a concept which they believed Confucianists overlooked.{{sfn |Wilson |2014 |p=194}} Apart from religious texts, the first generations of Buddhists in China responded to criticism from Confucianists by emphasizing the lay life more and the monastic life less in their teachings, and for those who did ordain as monastics, they decided to erect monasteries in populated areas, instead of retreating in the remote wilderness. This also helped to contribute to the social expectations of Chinese Confucian culture.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=356}} By the end of the 6th century, Buddhist monks were paying homage to the Chinese emperor through rituals and services, and the debate about whether monks should prostrate themselves came to a halt.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=224}} A number of apocryphal texts were also written that spoke of the Buddha's respect for his parents, and the parent{{en dash}}child relationship. The most important of these, the Sūtra of Filial Piety, was written early in the T'ang dynasty. This discourse has the Buddha make the argument that parents bestow kindness to their children in many ways, and put great efforts into ensuring the well-being of their child. The discourse continues by describing how difficult it is to repay one's parents' kindness, but concludes that this can be done, in a Buddhist way.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=357}} The Sūtra of Filial Piety was not only a way for Chinese Buddhists to adapt to Confucian ideals, it added its own Buddhist contribution to the concept of filial piety. It added the role of women and poor people in practicing filial piety, and regarded filial piety as a quality to be practiced toward all living beings in this and the next life. Therefore, the sūtra served not only as an adaptation to Confucian values, but also served Buddhist ideals of edification.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=365}} In their teachings about filial piety, Chinese Buddhists emphasized the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. They described how difficult it is to repay one's parents, and how many sins the mother often would commit in raising her children.{{sfn |Idema |2009 |p=xvii}} This emphasis on the son's obligation to the mother was a new addition to the Chinese concept of filial piety.{{sfn |Berezkin |2015 |loc=Ch. 2}}{{sfn |Idema |2008 |p=24}} According to scholar Nomura Shin'ichi, the ideal of the son repaying the gratitude to his mother played an important part in uniting two contrasting ideas in East Asian culture at the time, that is, the concept of feminine impurity on the one hand and the ideal of pure motherhood on the other hand.{{sfn |Berezkin |2015 |loc=Ch. 2}} Chinese Buddhists urged people to stop killing animals for ancestor worship, because this would create only bad karma; rather, people were encouraged to practice devotion and make merit, especially making donations to the Buddhist clergy and in that way to help their mothers from a bad rebirth in hell.{{refn |See {{harvtxt |Idema |2008 |p=209 n.66}}, {{harvtxt |Idema |2009 |p=xvii}} and {{harvtxt |Berezkin |2015 |loc=Ch. 1}}. Only Berezkin mentions the devotional practices.}} The traditional ancestral sacrifices were therefore discouraged by Chinese Buddhists.{{sfn |Idema |2008 |p=209 n.66}} In the 2nd century CE, another text was composed based on the Kataññnu Sutta ({{lang-sa|Katajña Sūtra|italic=yes}}{{sfn |Xing |2012 |p=77}}), called the Fumuen Nanbao Jing, the Discourse on the Difficulties in Repaying Parents' Debts. The text emphasizes the compassion parents have towards their children. It became highly popular in East Asian countries, as it was cited in at least ten Chinese translations of Indian texts.{{sfn |Xing |2012 |p=78}} Based on this text, the more popular Fumu Enzhong Jing was composed ({{zh|c=父母恩重經}}, title has similar meaning).{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=224}} In the T'ang Dynasty, the Fumu was depicted in illustrations found in the Dunhuang caves dating back to the T'ang and Song dynasties.{{refn |See {{harvtxt |Xing |2012 |p=79}} and {{harvtxt |Xing |2016 |p=224}} Only the 2016 study dates the murals.}} Popular preaching and lectures, mural and cave paintings and stone carvings indicate its great popularity among the common people.{{sfn |Xing |2012 |p=79}} In summary, in order to meet the expectations and demands of Confucian customs, East Asian Buddhism developed its own unique characteristics, which still exist till today.{{sfn |Sung |2009 |p=356}} Development in other parts of East AsiaThe Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents was introduced and translated in Korea in the Koryo period, in the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Confucian value of filial piety toward parents and emperor became strongly associated with Buddhism. Important in this process was the spread of edifying vernacular songs, in which filial children were encouraged to chant invocations of the Buddha Amitabha for their parents' rebirth in a Pure Land. Further, the songs, meant for Buddhists, urged people to respectfully serve social relationships including parents, in agreement with Confucian social ethics. In a 18th century shaman song informed by Buddhist principles, a princess called Pari kongju is abandoned by her parents because they want a male heir. She is later saved by the Buddha and raised by others. Despite being abandoned, she later finds medicine for her ill royal parents and cures them out of filial piety.{{sfn |Walraven |2012 |pp=108, 111{{en dash}}2}} Practice among Buddhists in the present dayFilial piety is still an important part of moral education in Buddhist countries.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=225}} It is an important value in a number of Asian cultures, some of which are informed by Buddhism, such as Thailand. In the context of care-giving in Thailand, the parents of a child are compared to an enlightened Buddhist monk from the perspective of the family. The children of a parent are seen to have a relationship of bunkhun with the parents, which is a value that informs their filial piety, and gives it a sense of "respect, honor, fidelity, devotion, dutifulness, and sacrifice".{{sfn |Wiseso |Fongkaew |Pinyokham |Spiers |2017 |pp=318, 324, 326}} Furthermore, there is a custom for male children to temporarily ordain as a Buddhist monk in order to share the religious merit with their parents. Having passed this rite is regarded by the Thai as a sign of maturity and as an expression of filial piety.{{sfn |Falk |2007 |pp=84, 100}} The Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents is still popular in East Asia and is often referred to in preaching by monks.{{sfn |Xing |2016 |p=224}} Among some Buddhists, there is a custom of prostrating to parents. In a 2015 study among British teens who self-identify as Buddhist, 78% of heritage (ethnic) Buddhists indicated they prostrated to their parents, and 13% of convert Buddhist teens.{{sfn |Thanissaro |2015 |pp=1{{en dash}}2}} Notes{{reference list |group=note}}Citations{{reference list |20em}}References{{refbegin}}
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