“1929 Palestine riots”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The 1929 Arab riots in Palestine, or the Buraq Uprising ({{lang-ar|ثورة البراق}}, {{transl|ar|Thawrat al-Buraq}}), also known as the 1929 Massacres, ({{lang-he-n|מאורעות תרפ"ט}}, {{transl|he|Meora'ot Tarpat}}, lit. Events of 5689 Anno Mundi) refers to a series of demonstrations and riots in late August 1929 when a long-running dispute between Muslims and Jews over access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem escalated into violence. The riots took the form, in the most part, of attacks by Arabs on Jews accompanied by destruction of Jewish property. During the week of riots from 23 to 29 August, 133 Jews were killed and between 198–241 others were injured, a large majority of whom were unarmed and were murdered in their homes by Arabs, while at least 116 Arabs were killed and at least 232 were injured, mostly by the British police while trying to suppress the riots, although around 20 were killed by Jewish attacks or indiscriminate British gunfire.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}^[1] During the riots, 17 Jewish communities were evacuated.^[2]

The British-appointed Shaw Commission found that the fundamental cause of the violence "without which in our opinion disturbances either would not have occurred or would not have been little more than a local riot, is the Arab feeling of animosity and hostility towards the Jews consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future.”{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=150-157}} It also attributed the cause as being Arab fears of Jewish immigrants "not only as a menace to their livelihood but as a possible overlord of the future."{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=151}} Avraham Sela described the riots as "unprecedented in the history of the Arab-Jewish conflict in Palestine, in duration, geographical scope and direct damage to life and property."^[3]

Background

Religious significance

The Western Wall is one of the holiest of Jewish sites, considered by Jews to be a remnant of the ancient Second Temple compound destroyed in 70 CE.^[4]{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=297|ps=: "Jews had prayed at the Western Wall since the Middle Ages. They considered the wall, one side of a narrow alley, to be the sole remnant of the Second Temple."}} The Jews, through the practice of centuries, had established a right of access to the Wailing Wall for the purposes of their devotions. As part of the Temple Mount the Western Wall was under the control of the Muslim religious trust, the Waqf.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} Muslims consider the wall to be part of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the third holiest site in Islam, and according to Islamic tradition the place where Muhammad tied his horse, Buraq, before his night journey to heaven.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} There had been a few serious incidents resulting from these differences.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=29}}

1925 ruling

As a result of an incident, which occurred in September 1925, a ruling was made which forbade the Jews to bring seats and benches to the Wall even though these were intended for worshippers who were aged and infirm.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=29}} The Muslims linked any adaptions to the site with "the Zionist project," and feared that they would be the first step in turning the site into a synagogue and taking it over.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Several months earlier Zionist leader Menachem Ussishkin gave a speech demanding "a Jewish state without compromises and without concessions, from Dan to Be'er Sheva, from the great sea to the desert, including Transjordan." He concluded, "Let us swear that the Jewish people will not rest and will not remain silent until its national home is built on our Mt Moriah," a reference to the Temple Mount.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

1928 incident

In September 1928, Jews praying at the Wall on Yom Kippur placed chairs and a mechitza that looked like a simple room divider of cloth covering a few wooden frames to separate the men and women. Jerusalem's British commissioner Edward Keith-Roach, while visiting a Muslim religious court building overlooking the prayer area, mentioned to a constable that he had never seen it at the wall before, although the constable had seen it earlier that day and had not given it any attention. The sheikhs hosting the commissioner immediately protested the screen on the grounds that it violated the Ottoman status quo forbidding Jews from bringing physical structures, even temporary furniture, into the area due to Muslim fears of Zionist expropriation of the site. The sheikhs disclaimed responsibility for what could happen if the screen was not taken down, and Keith-Roach told the Ashkenazic beadle to remove the screen because of the Arabs' demands. The beadle requested that the screen remained standing until the end of the prayer service, to which Keith-Roach agreed. While the commissioner was visiting a synagogue, Attorney General Norman Bentwich had his request to keep the screen until after the fast rejected by the commissioner, who ordered the constable to ensure it was removed by morning. The constable feared the screen meant trouble, and had the commissioners order signed and officially stamped, speaking again with the beadle that evening. When the screen remained in the morning, the constable sent ten armed policemen to remove it. The policemen charged the small group near the screen and were urged by nearby Arab residents to attack the assembled Jews. Jewish worshipers who had gathered began to attack the policemen. The screen was eventually destroyed by the policemen. The constable had infuriated his superiors due to his use of excessive force without good judgement, but the British government later issued a statement defending his actions.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Although screens had been set up temporarily at the site before, and other prohibitions were ignored or relaxed at times, the violent confrontation over the latest screen would engender further violence. The internal politics of both sides were also willing to adopt extreme positions and make use of religious symbols to whip up popular support.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Subsequent events

Zionist literature published throughout the world used the imagery of a domed structure on the Temple Mount to symbolize their national aspirations.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} A Zionist flag was depicted atop of a building very reminiscent of the Dome of the Rock in one publication, which was later picked up and redistributed by Arab propagandists.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Haj Amin al Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem distributed leaflets to Arabs in Palestine and throughout the Arab world which claimed that the Jews were planning to take over the al-Aqsa Mosque.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} The leaflet stated that the Government was "responsible for any consequences of any measures which the Moslems may adopt for the purpose of defending the holy Burak themselves in the event of the failure of the Government...to prevent any such intrusion on the part of the Jews." A memorandum issued by the Moslem Supreme Council stated, "Having realized by bitter experience the unlimited greedy aspirations of the Jews in this respect, Moslems believe that the Jews’ aim is to take possession of the Mosque of Al-Aqsa gradually on the pretence that it is the Temple," and it advised the Jews "to stop this hostile propaganda which will naturally engender a parallel action in the whole Moslem world, the responsibility for which will rest with the Jews."{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=31}}

The Shaw Commission stated that some sections of the Arabic Press had reproduced documents concerning the Wailing Wall which "were of a character likely to excite any susceptible readers." In addition, it stated that "there appeared in the Arabic Press a number of articles, which, had they been published in England or in other western countries, would unquestionably have been regarded as provocative."{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=41}} One consequence was that Jewish worshippers frequently were subjected to beatings and stoning.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

In October 1928, the Grand Mufti organised new construction next to and above the Wall. Mules were driven through the praying area often dropping excrement, and waste water was thrown on Jews. A muezzin was appointed to perform the Islamic call to prayer directly next to the Wall, creating noise exactly when the Jews were conducting their prayers. The Jews protested at these provocations and tensions increased.^[5]^[6]{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=230|ps=: “From 1929 onward, the Supreme Muslim Council intensified construction work on the Haram al-Sharif in order to demonstrate their exclusive claims to the Temple Mount (...) Not without reason, Jewish believers felt disturbed in their prayer.”}}^[7]

Zionists began making demands for control over the wall; some went as far as to call openly for the rebuilding of the Temple, increasing Muslim fears over Zionist intentions.{{sfn|Morris|1999|p=113}} Ben-Gurion said the wall should be “redeemed,” predicting it could be achieved in as little as “another half a year.”{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=305|ps=: "Ben-Gurion had stated that the wall should be "redeemed," predicting that this could be done perhaps "in another half a year," but he rejected the emotional phraseology and hysteria he attributed to Ussishkin and Jabotinsky. He recalled publicly that Jabotinsky had opposed sending reinforcements to support the settlers at Tel Hai. He warned against confrontation with the Arabs, urging instead a confrontation with the government. Still, Jabotinsky won this particular round of the patriotism contest; the wall affair was good for him, just as it was good for the

mufti."}} During the spring of 1929 the Revisionist newspaper edited by right-wing leader Ze'ev Jabotinsky, ran a long campaign claiming Jewish rights over the wall and its pavement, going as far as calling for "insubordination and violence," and pleading that Jews not stop protesting and demonstrating until the Wall is "restored to us."{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}}

On 6 August the British Palestine Police Force established a police post beside the wall. On 14 August the Haganah and Brit Trumpeldor held a meeting in Tel Aviv attended by 6,000 people objecting to 1928 Commission's conclusion that the Wall was Muslim property.^[8]

March to the Western Wall and counter demonstrations, 14–15 August

Joseph Klausner who formed the Pro–Wailing Wall Committee helped organize several demonstrations, beginning on 14 August 1929 when 6,000 youths marched around the wall of the old city of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}}

On Thursday, 15 August, during the Jewish fast of Tisha B'Av, several hundred members of Klausner's right-wing group – described by Professor Michael J. Cohen as "brawny youths with staves"{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=216|ps=: "The events leading up to the outbreak of the mass violence may be reviewed here briefly. On 14 August, 6000 Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv, brandishing banners inscribed: "The Wall is Ours". That same evening, some 3000 Jews held prayers at the Wall itself. The next day, large numbers of orthodox Jews gathered to pray at the Wall, accompanied by some 300 brawny youths with staves, members of a right wing youth group. After shouting slogans, they all dispersed. On the following day thousands of Moslems flocked to the Wall, listened to sermons, burned Jewish prayer books and removed the notes that pious Jews habitually pushed into the crevices in the Wall."}} – marched to the Western Wall shouting "the Wall is ours," raised the Jewish national flag, sang Hatikvah (the Jewish anthem).{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} The group included members of Vladimir Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionism movement Betar youth organization, under the leadership of Jeremiah Halpern. Rumors circulated among the Arabs that the procession attacked local residents and cursed the name of the Prophet Muhammad.^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}} The Shaw report later concluded that the crowd was peaceful and allegations that the crowd were armed with iron bars were not correct, but that there may have been threatening cries made by some "undesirable elements" in the Jewish procession.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=54-56}} Leaders of the Palestine Zionist Executive were reportedly alarmed by the activities of the Revisionists as well as "embarrassed" and fearful of an "accident" and had notified the authorities of the march in advance,{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}} who provided a heavy police escort in a bid to prevent any incidents.

On Friday, 16 August after a sermon, a demonstration organized by the Supreme Muslim Council marched to the Wall. The Acting High Commissioner summoned Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini and informed him that he had never heard of such a demonstration being held at the Wailing Wall, and that it would be a terrible shock to the Jews who regarded the Wall as a place of special sanctity to them. At the Wall, the crowd burnt prayer books, liturgical fixtures and notes of supplication left in the Wall's cracks, and the beadle was injured. The demonstrations spread to the Jewish commercial area of town.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930}}^[13]

Inflammatory articles calculated to incite disorder appeared in the Arab media and one flyer, signed by "the Committee of the Holy Warriors in Palestine" stated that the Jews had violated the honor of Islam, and declared: "Hearts are in tumult because of these barbaric deeds, and the people began to break out in shouts of 'war, Jihad ... rebellion.' ... O Arab nation, the eyes of your brothers in Palestine are upon you ... and they awaken your religious feelings and national zealotry to rise up against the enemy who violated the honor of Islam and raped the women and murdered widows and babies."{{sfn|Morris|1999|p=113}}{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930}}

On the same afternoon, the Jewish newspaper Doar HaYom – of which Jabotinsky was the editor – published an inflammatory leaflet describing the Muslim march, based partially on statements by Wolfgang von Weisl, which "in material particulars was incorrect" according to the Shaw report.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=54-56}} On 18 August, Haaretz criticised Doar HaYom in an article entitled "He who Sows the Wind shall Reap the Whirlwind": "The poison of propaganda was dripping from its columns daily until it poisoned the atmosphere and brought about the Thursday demonstration....and this served as a pretext to the wild demonstration of the Arabs."^[14]

Escalation, 16–22 August

The next day an incident which "in its origin was of a personal nature" was sparked when a 17 year old Sephardic Jew named Abraham Mizrachi was fatally stabbed by an Arab at the Maccabi grounds near Mea Shearim and the Bukharim quarter, on the outskirts of the village lands of Lifta, following a quarrel which began when he and his friends tried to retrieve their lost football from an Arab girl after it has rolled into an Arab tomato field.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=311|ps=: "Avraham Mizrahi, seventeen years old, seems to have been murdered because the soccer ball he was playing with, not far from the Arab village of Lifta, rolled into an Arab family's tomato patch. A girl grabbed the ball and hid it under her clothing. When Mizrahi and his friends tried to get it back, the girl started screaming. Within minutes a fight developed. Someone hit Mizrahi on the head with an iron rod and shattered his skull."}}^[15]^[15] A Jewish crowd attacked and severely wounded the policeman who arrived to arrest the Arab responsible, and then attacked and burned neighbouring Arab tents and shacks erected by Lifta residents and wounded their occupants;{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=54-56}} the wounded included an Arab youth named 'Ali 'Abdallah Hasan who was chosen at random to be stabbed in retaliation.{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}}{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=89-90|ps=: "Two Hebrew newspapers offered different versions of the incident… but neither reported the raid that followed Mizrahi's injury, when dozens of Jews attacked and burned shacks and tents that Lifta's Arabs had erected on their land near the Bukharan neighborhood, and assaulted the family of one of the Arabs there, 'Ali 'Abdallah Hasan. Hasan had shut himself up in his house, but a band of Jews managed to break in and stabbed him repeatedly. A Jewish neighbor, Shimon, who owned a nearby grocery store, tried to hold the attackers back and was beaten"}}

Mizrachi died on 20 August and his funeral became the occasion for a serious anti-Arab demonstration. It was suppressed by the same force that had been employed in the initial incident. A late-night meeting initiated the following day by the Jewish leadership, at which acting high commissioner Harry Luke, Jamal al-Husayni, and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi were present, failed to produce a call for an end to the violence.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Over the following four days period, the Jerusalem police reported 12 separate attacks by Jews on Arabs and seven attacks by Arabs on Jews.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=54-56}}^[15]

On 21 August, the Palestine Zionist Executive telegrammed the Zionist Organization describing the general excitement and the Arab fear of the Jews:

The riots

Jerusalem riots, 23 August

The next Friday, 23 August, thousands of Arab villagers streamed into Jerusalem from the surrounding countryside to pray at the Al-Aqsa Mosque, many armed with sticks and knives. The gathering was prompted by rumors that the Zionists were going to march to the Temple Mount and claim ownership, as they had belligerently marched on the Western Wall demanding Jewish ownership 9 days earlier.{{sfn|Mattar|2006|pp=104-118}} Harry Luke requested reinforcements from Amman. Towards 09:30 Jewish storekeepers began closing shop and at 11:00, 20–30 gunshots were heard on the Temple Mount, apparently to work up the crowd. Luke telephoned the Mufti to come and calm a mob that had gathered under his window near the Damascus Gate, but the commissioner's impression was that the religious leader's presence was having the opposite effect. By midday friction had spread to the Jewish neighborhood of Mea She'arim where two or three Arabs were killed. The American consulate documented the event in detail, reported that the killings had taken place between 12:00 and 12:30.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=315}} The Shaw report described the excited Arab crowds and that it was clear beyond all doubt that at 12:50 large sections of these crowds were bent on mischief if not on murder. At 13:15, the Arabs began a massacre of the Jews.^[15]{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930}}{{psc|date=December 2017}}

Reacting to rumors that two Arabs had been murdered by Jews, Arabs started an attack on Jews in Jerusalem's Old City. The violence quickly spread to other parts of Palestine. British authorities had fewer than 100 soldiers, six armoured cars, and five or six aircraft in country; Palestine Police had 1,500 men, but the majority were Arab, with a small number of Jews and 175 British officers. While awaiting reinforcements, many untrained administration officials were required to attach themselves to the police, though the Jews among them were sent back to their offices. Several English theology students visiting from the University of Oxford were deputized.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} While a number of Jews were being killed at the Jaffa Gate, British policemen did not open fire. They reasoned that if they had shot into the Arab crowd, the mob would have turned their anger on the police.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

Yemin Moshe was one of the few Jewish neighbourhoods to return fire, but most of Jerusalem's Jews did not defend themselves. At the outbreak of the violence and again in the following days, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi demanded that weapons be handed to the Jews, but was both times refused.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}} By August 24, 17 Jews were killed in the Jerusalem area. The worst killings occurred in Hebron and Safed while others were killed in Motza, Kfar Uria, Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. There were many isolated attacks on Jewish villages, and in six cases, villages were entirely destroyed, accompanied by looting and burning. In Haifa and Jaffa, the situation deteriorated and a police officer succeeded in warding off an attack on the quarter between Jaffa and Tel Aviv by firing on an Arab crowd.

The administrative director of Haddasah hospital in Jerusalem sent a cable to New York describing the casualties and that Arabs were attacking several Jewish hospitals.^[16]

In a few instances, Jews attacked Arabs and destroyed Arab property. These attacks were in most cases in retaliation for wrongs already committed by Arabs in the neighbourhood in which the Jewish attacks occurred. A Police officer opened fire on an Arab crowd and succeeded in beating off an attack on the quarter which lies between Jaffa and Tel Aviv. The worst instance of a Jewish attack on Arabs occurred in this quarter, where the Imam of a mosque and six other persons were killed.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}{{psc|date=December 2017}}

According to the Shaw Report, the disturbances were not premeditated and did not occur simultaneously but spread from Jerusalem through a period of days to most outlying centres of population.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=158}}{{psc|date=December 2017}} The Shaw report found that the "outbreak in Jerusalem on August 23 was from the beginning an attack by Arabs on Jews for which no excuse in the form of earlier murders by Jews has been established."{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=63}}{{psc|date=December 2017}}

Later on 23 August, the British authorities armed 41 Jewish special constables, 18 Jewish ex-soldiers and a further 60 Jews were issued staves, to assist in the defense of Jewish quarters in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=66-67}}{{sfn|Kiwe|1953|p=62|ps=: "Later, in Jerusalem, arms were issued to eighteen Jewish ex-soldiers and staves, to sixty-six other British Jews. A request from the Palestine Zionist Executive to arm a greater number of Jews was denied, although the police officially admitted that they were no longer able to accept the responsibility for public security"}}{{sfn|Klieman|1987|p=66|ps=: "Later on that day Major Saunders, at the suggestion of Mr. Ben Zvi, a leader of Jewish labour, issued arms to 18 Jewish ex-soldiers and staves to about 60 other Jews. It was intended that these persons should assist in the defence of Jewish quarters in Jerusalem. About 10 a.m. on Saturday, the 24th of August, representatives of the Palestine Zionist Executive urged upon Mr. Luke that some 500 Jewish youths should be enrolled and armed in order to undertake the protection of out-lying Jewish colonies. Mr. Luke, after consideration, decided that these people should not be armed."}} The following day, Arab notables issued a statement that "many rumours and reports of various kinds have spread to the effect that Government had enlisted and armed certain Jews, that they had enrolled Jewish ex-soldiers who had served in the Great War; and the Government forces were firing at Arabs exclusively." The Mufti of Jerusalem stated that there was a large crowd of excited Arabs in the Haram area who were also demanding arms, and that the excited crowd in the Haram area took the view that the retention of Jews as special constables carrying arms was a breach of faith by the Government. The Government initially denied the rumours, but by 27 August they were forced to disband and disarm the special constables.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=66-67}}{{sfn|Klieman|1987|p=67}}

Hebron massacre, 24 August

On 20 August, Haganah leaders proposed to provide defence for 600 Jews of the Old Yishuv in Hebron, or to help them evacuate. However, the leaders of the Hebron community declined these offers, insisting that they trusted the A'yan (Arab notables) to protect them.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

On 24 August 1929 in Hebron, Arab mobs attacked the Jewish quarter killing and raping men, women and children and looting Jewish property. They killed 65–68 Jews^[17]^[18] and wounded 58, with some of the victims being tortured, or mutilated.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}^[19]{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=232}} Sir John Chancellor, the British High Commissioner visited Hebron and later wrote to his son, "The horror of it is beyond words. In one house I visited not less than twenty-five Jews men and women were murdered in cold blood." Sir Walter Shaw concluded in The Palestine Disturbances report that "unspeakable atrocities have occurred in Hebron.^[23]

The Shaw report described the attack, "Arabs in Hebron made a most ferocious attack on the Jewish ghetto and on isolated Jewish houses lying outside the crowded quarters of the town. More than 60 Jews – including many women and children – were murdered and more than 50 were wounded. This savage attack, of which no condemnation could be too severe, was accompanied by wanton destruction and looting. Jewish synagogues were desecrated, a Jewish hospital, which had provided treatment for Arabs, was attacked and ransacked, and only the exceptional personal courage displayed by Mr. Cafferata – the one British Police Officer in the town – prevented the outbreak from developing into a general massacre of the Jews in Hebron."{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=64}}

The lone British policeman in the town, Raymond Cafferata, who, "killed as many of the murderers as he could, taking to his fists even," was overwhelmed, and the reinforcements he called for did not arrive for 5 hours–leading to severe recriminations. Hundreds of Jews were saved by their more benevolent Arab neighbours, who offered them sanctuary from the mob by hiding them in their own houses{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=325–326}} while others survived by taking refuge in the British police station at Beit Ramon on the outskirts of the city. When the massacre ended, the surviving Jews were evacuated by the British.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}

This massacre had a deep and lasting effect on the old and newer Jewish communities in Palestine.

Hebron yeshiva massacre

The Hebron Yeshiva, a branch of the famed Slobodka yeshiva, was also attacked during the riots. On Friday, 23 August, an Arab crowd gathered outside it and threw stones through the windows. Only two people were inside, a student and the sexton. The student was grabbed by the Arab crowd, who stabbed him to death; the sexton survived by hiding in a well. The next day, a crowd armed with staves and axes attacked and killed two Jewish boys, one stoned to death and the other stabbed. More than 70 Jews, including the Yeshiva students, sought refuge in the house of Eliezer Dan Slonim, the son of the Rabbi of Hebron, but were massacred by an Arab mob. Survivors and reporters recounted the carnage that occurred at the Slonim residence. Moses Harbater, an 18-year-old was stabbed and two of his fingers were severed. He described at a later trial of some Arab rioters how a fellow student had been mutilated and killed. Forty-two teachers and students were murdered at the yeshiva.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}^[20]^[21]^[22]

Hadassah hospital attack

The Hadassah Medical Organization operated an infirmary in Hebron. The Beit Hadassah clinic had three floors with the infirmary, the pharmacy and the synagogue on the top floor. The rioters destroyed the pharmacy and torched the synagogue and destroyed the Torah scrolls inside.{{sfn|Segev|1999|p=295–313}}^[23]

Desecration of the Nebi Akasha Mosque, 26 August

On 26 August, the Nebi Akasha Mosque in Jerusalem was attacked by a group of Jews. According to the Shaw Report, the mosque was a "sacred shrine of great antiquity held in much veneration by the Moslems." The mosque was badly damaged and the tombs of the prophets which it contained were desecrated.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}

Attack on Mishmar HaEmek

The kibbutz of Mishmar HaEmek was attacked on 26 August by an Arab mob, which was dispersed by the locals and British police. On the following day the British authorities ordered the kibbutz members to evacuate. On 28 August an Arab mob attacked the empty kibbutz again, burning its barn, uprooting trees and vandalizing its cemetery. The members of the Kibbutz returned on 7 September.^[2]

Safed massacre, 29 August

In Safed on 29 August 18 Jews were killed (some sources say 20) and 80 wounded. The attackers looted and set fire to houses and killed Jewish inhabitants. The main Jewish street was looted and burned.

"At about 5:15 pm, on the 29th of August, Arab mobs attacked the Jewish ghetto in Safed…in the course of which some 45 Jews were killed or wounded, several Jewish houses and shops were set on fire, and there was a repetition of the wanton destruction which had been so prominent a feature of the attack at Hebron."

An eyewitness describing the pogrom that took place in Safed, perpetrated by Arabs from Safed and local villages, armed with weapons and kerosene tins. He observed mutilated and burned bodies of victims and the burnt body of a woman tied to a window. Several people were brutally killed. A schoolteacher, wife, and mother and a lawyer, were cut to pieces with knives and the attackers entered an orphanage and smashed children's heads and cut off their hands. Another victim was stabbed repeatedly and trampled to death.^[24]

The Safed massacre marked the end of the disturbances.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}

Other areas

The British police had to open fire to prevent outrages in Nablus and Jaffa, and a police officer succeeded in warding off an attack on the quarter between Jaffa and Tel Aviv by firing on an Arab crowd.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}

Casualties

Deaths and injuries

According to the Shaw Report, during the week of riots from 23 to 29 August 116 Arabs and 133 Jews were killed and 232 Arabs and 198 Jews were injured and treated in hospital.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65}}^[25]^[26]

The Jewish casualty figures were provided by the Jewish authorities.^[26] The Arab casualty figures represented only those actually admitted to hospital and did not include "a considerable number of unrecorded casualties from rifle fire that occurred amongst Arabs."^[26]

Many of the 116 reported Arab deaths were as a result of police and military activities,^[27]^[28] although around 20 of the Arabs killed were not involved in attacks on Jews and were killed as a result of lynchings and revenge attacks by Jews or by indiscriminate gunfire by the British authorities.^[25] Arab notables accused the Government forces of firing at Arabs exclusively.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=65-67}}

Most Jewish casualties resulted from Arab attacks, although the British authorities admitted in the Shaw report that "possibly some of the Jewish casualties were caused by rifle fire by the police or military forces"^[27]

Trials and convictions

The riots produced a large number of trials. According to the Attorney-General of Palestine, Norman Bentwich, the following numbers of persons were charged, with the numbers convicted in parentheses.^[29]

Of those convicted of murder, 26 Arabs and 2 Jews were sentenced to death. The Arabs included 14 convicted for the massacre in Safed and 11 for the massacre in Hebron.^[30] The Jewish policeman Simchas Hinkis was convicted for the murder of five and wounding of two when a mob broke into a house between Tel Aviv and Jaffa to avenge the murder of six Jews.^[31]^[32] Joseph Urphali was convicted by two separate trials, and lost his appeal twice, for the shooting of two Arabs from the roof of his Jaffa house.^[33]

Some of the Arab convictions were overturned on appeal and all the remaining death sentences were commuted to terms of imprisonment by the High Commissioner except in the case of three Arabs. Atta Ahmed el Zeer, Mohammad Khaleel Jamjoum and Fuad Hassab el Hejazi were hanged on 17 June 1930.^[34]

Collective fines were imposed on the Arabs of Hebron, Safed, and some villages.^[29] The fine on Hebron was 14,000 pounds.^[35] The fines collected, and an additional one hundred thousand pounds, were distributed to the victims, 90 percent of them Jews.^[29]

Jewish communities

Aftermath

A few dozen Jewish families returned to Hebron in 1931 to reestablish the community, but all but one family were evacuated from Hebron at the outset of the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine.^[41] The last family left in 1947.{{Citation needed| date=May 2012}}

The Arabs in the region, led by the Palestine Arab Congress, imposed a boycott on Jewish-owned businesses following the riots.^[42]

Historiography

Shaw Commission of Enquiry

A commission of enquiry led by Sir Walter Shaw took public evidence for several weeks. The main conclusions of the Commission were as follows.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930}} [Material not in brackets is verbatim.]

The Commission recommended that the Government reconsider its policies as to Jewish immigration and land sales to Jews. This led directly to the Hope Simpson Royal Commission in 1930.

Commission member Henry Snell signed the report but added a Note of Reservation.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=172-183}} Although he was satisfied that the Mufti was not directly responsible for the violence or had connived at it, he believed the Mufti was aware of the nature of the anti-Zionist campaign and the danger of disturbances.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=172-183}} He therefore attributed to the Mufti a greater share of the blame than the official report had.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=172-183}} Snell also disagreed with the commission on matters of Jewish immigration, and did not support restrictions on Jewish land purchases.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=172-183}} Regarding the immediate causes of the outbreak, Snell agreed with the main findings of the commission.{{sfn|Shaw Commission|1930|pp=172-183}}

Hope Simpson Royal Commission, 1930

The commission was headed by Sir John Hope Simpson, and on 21 October 1930 it produced its report, dated 1 October 1930. The report recommended to limit the Jewish immigration due to the lack of agricultural land to support it.

Role of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in the riots

Historians differ in assessing the role of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini in the riots. Some sources claim al-Husseini actually incited the riots, some claim al-Husseini took advantage of the crisis for the advancement of his own goals, and some claim al-Husseini called for restraint.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

See also

Notes

1. ^{{cite book | title=Causes and Consequences of the Arab-Israeli Conflict | publisher=Evans Brothers | author=Ross, Stewart | year=2004 | pages=22 | isbn=0237525852}}
2. ^¹²{{cite web|title=אירועים ביטחוניים בתולדות משמר העמק [Security events in the history of Mishmar HaEmek]|url=http://mh.kibbutz.org.il/cgi-webaxy/item?306|website=Mishmar HaEmek website|accessdate=9 July 2016|language=Hebrew}}
3. ^{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.1994.tb03589.x | volume=84 | issue=1-2 | title=THE "WAILING WALL" RIOTS (1929) AS A WATERSHED IN THE PALESTINE CONFLICT | year=1994 | journal=The Muslim World | pages=60–94 | last1 = Sela | first1 = Avraham}}
4. ^{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xb-9J4KoT6EC | title=Symbols of Defeat in the Construction of National Identity | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2011 | accessdate=19 April 2012 | author=Steven J. Mock | pages=1, 2}}
5. ^{{Cite book | last = Ben Dov | first = Meir |author2= Naor, Mordechai|author3= Aner, Ze'ev | title = The Western Wall | year = 1983 | publisher = Ministry of Defence Publishing House | location = Israel | isbn = 965-05-0055-3 | pages = g.123–137 | chapter = VI: The Struggle for the Wall | quote = }}
6. ^{{Cite book | last = Ovendale | first = Ritchie | title = The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Wars | year = 2004 | publisher = Pearson Education | isbn = 0-58282320-X | pages = g.71 | chapter = The "Wailing Wall" Riots | quote =The Mufti tried to establish Muslim rights and the Jews were deliberately antagonised by building works and noise. }}
7. ^{{cite book |last=Benvenisti |first=Meron |authorlink=Meron Benvenisti|title=City of Stone: The Hidden History of Jerusalem |year=1996 |publisher=Metropolitan Books |isbn= |pages=80–81 }}
8. ^Horne, Edward (1982) "A Job Well Done. A History of the Palestine Police Force. 1920–1948". Anchor Press. {{ISBN|978-1857767582}}. Page 132. "The principle inflammatory organ of the day."
9. ^Levi-Faur, Sheffer and Vogel, 1999, p. 216.
10. ^Sicker, 2000, p. 80.
11. ^'The Wailing Wall In Jerusalem Another Incident', The Times, Monday, 19 August 1929, p. 11, issue 45285, col D.
12. ^{{Cite book | last = Ovendale | first = Ritchie | title = The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Wars | year = 2004 | publisher = Pearson Education | isbn = 058282320X | pages = g.71 | chapter = British Paramountcy over Arabs and Zionists | quote = }}
13. ^{{cite book | last = Gilbert | first = Martin | authorlink = Martin Gilbert | title = Jerusalem Illustrated History Atlas | year = 1977 | month = | publisher = Board of Deputies of British Jews | location = London | isbn = 0-905648 04 8 | pages = 79 | chapter = Jerusalem, Zionism and the Arab Revolt 1920-1940 | quote = }}
14. ^Ha’aretz, Sunday 18 August 1929.
15. ^J.Bowyer Bell, Terror out of Zion: The Fight for Israeli Independence, Transaction ed. Prologue p.1 name
16. ^{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yjDCNPmx_8C&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=British+police+killed+110+Arabs&source=bl&ots=H03nt2FdBc&sig=V5uMSt7_q4TZc9wnhSdDRqdMQrs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=w2yNT7jrOYiu8APq28i4Cw&sqi=2&ved=0CFIQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=British%20police%20killed%20110%20Arabs&f=false | title=It Takes a Dream: The Story of Hadassah | publisher=Gefen Publishing House | date=Jul 2002 | accessdate=17 April 2012 | author=Marlin Levin | pages=116}}
17. ^Norman Rose, "A Senseless, Squalid War: Voices from Palestine 1945-1948", The Bodley Head, London, 2009. (p. 35)
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.forward.com/main/article.php?ref=staff200408181145 |title=Jewish News, Jewish Newspapers - Forward.com |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=15 May 2006 |accessdate=7 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515224516/http://www.forward.com/main/article.php?ref=staff200408181145 |archivedate=15 May 2006 }}
19. ^{{cite web | url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/israel/hebron6-03.htm | title=Hebron | publisher=Human Rights Watch | accessdate=30 May 2012}}
20. ^¹{{cite book | title=Hebron Jews: Memory and Conflict in the Land of Israel | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | author=Jerold S. Auerbach | year=2009}}
21. ^{{cite book | title=History of the Jews in Modern Times | publisher=Oxford University Press | author=Lloyd P. Gartner | year=2011 | pages=344}}
22. ^{{cite book | title=The Year After the Riots: American Responses to the Palestine Crisis of 1929-30 | publisher=Wayne State University Press | author=Naomi Wiener Cohen | year=1988 | pages=22}}
23. ^{{cite journal | title=Both the dove and the serpent: Hadassah's work in 1920s Palestine | publisher=Judaism; a Journal of Jewish Life & Thought |location=New York |volume=52 |issue=1–2 |date=Spring 2003 |pages=71–83 | author=Sochen, June}}
24. ^{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDxPY1QvJWcC&pg=PA38 | title=Time to Tell: An Israeli Life, 1898-1984 | publisher=Associated University Presses | ISBN=0845347896 | year=1985 | accessdate=16 April 2012 | author=David Hacohen | page=38}}
25. ^¹²³⁴{{harvnb|Cohen|2015|p=xxi}}: "Note: Total fatalities: 133 Jews, 116 Arabs. Total injured: 241 Jews, 232 Arabs. The British counted the casualties by religion (Muslim, Jew, Christian) rather than by nationality. The category "wounded" counts those who were hospitalized. Some historians believe the number of Arab dead was higher but that some were uncounted because the assailants managed to carry their dead away. A large majority of the Jews slain were unarmed and were murdered in their homes by Arabs. Most of the Arab dead were killed as they attacked Jewish settlements or neighborhoods. Most of the Arabs were felled by bullets fired by the British armed forces; some were shot by members of the Haganah. As will be shown, about twenty of the Arabs killed were not involved in attacks on Jews. They were killed in lynchings and revenge attacks carried out by Jews, or by indiscriminate British gunfire."
26. ^¹²³⁴{{harvnb|Boyle|2001|p=162 [note 48]}}: "The Palestine Department of Health calculated that 133 Jews and 116 Arabs were killed and 198 Jews and 232 Arabs were wounded and treated in hospitals. These statistics were not completely accurate, for those concerning Jews included statistics provided by Jewish authorities, whereas those concerning Arabs excluded all but those who actually died or were treated in the hospital (Shaw Commission Report, p. 66)."
27. ^¹{{harvnb|Shaw Commission|1930|p=65a}}: "many of the Arab casualties and possibly some of the Jewish casualties were caused by rifle fire by the police or military forces."
28. ^¹²³{{cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Anglo16.html | title=Appendix V: Palestine: Public Security | work=Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry | year=1946 | accessdate=17 April 2012}}
29. ^¹²{{cite book | author = Norman Bentwich | title = England in Palestine | year = 1932 | place = London | publisher = Kegan Paul, Tench, Trubner & Cp. Ltd. | page = 203}}
30. ^{{cite news | title = The Death Sentences in Palestine | newspaper = The Times |date=2 June 1930 |page = 13}}
31. ^{{cite news | title = Telegrams in Brief | newspaper = The Times |date=7 February 1930 |page = 13}}
32. ^{{cite news |title=none| newspaper = New York Times |date=6 February 1930 |page = 9}}
33. ^{{cite news | title = Telegrams in Brief | newspaper = The Times |date=8 August 1930 |page = 9}}
34. ^{{cite news | title = The Palestine Riots | newspaper = The Times |date=18 June 1930 |page = 13}}
35. ^Palestine Post, 15 Dec 1932.
36. ^{{cite book|last1=L. Wallach|first1=Jehuda|title=Carta's Atlas Of Palestine - From Zionism To Statehood|date=1974|publisher=Yerushalayim : Karṭa|location=Israel|page=53|edition=second revised|language=Hebrew}}
37. ^{{cite news|title = Three new villages in N. Palestine | newspaper = Palestine Post | date = 18 January 1946 | page = 1}}
38. ^{{cite news|title=Destruction of HarTuv|url=http://jpress.org.il/Olive/APA/NLI_Heb/SharedView.Article.aspx?parm=q5bYR28u92PO4dS7MrjBAR6C452Okh2A3lw6Y9C1NEoronBZuhXJpZ%2FiJpsKe9eZYw%3D%3D&mode=image&href=DAV%2f1929%2f09%2f02&page=2&rtl=true|accessdate=21 July 2016|work=Davar|date=2 September 1929}}
39. ^{{cite web|last1=Etkes |first1=Dror |last2=Friedman |first2=Lara |title=Gush Etzion |url=http://peacenow.org.il/eng/content/gush-etzion |publisher=Peace Now |accessdate=22 July 2016 |date=November 2005 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628142645/http://peacenow.org.il/eng/content/gush-etzion |archivedate=28 June 2016 |df= }}
40. ^{{cite web|last1=Orni|first1=Efraim|title=Kefar Malal|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0012_0_10976.html|website=Jewish Virtual Library|accessdate=22 July 2016|date=2008}}
41. ^Palestine Post, 20–23 April 1936.
42. ^{{cite book|last=Feiler|first=Gil|title=From Boycott to Economic Cooperation: The Political Economy of the Arab Boycott of Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tFnXdEuKgoC&pg=PA22|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-4866-8|pages=21–22}}