| 词条 | Global issue | ||||||||||||
| 释义 |
Informally, a global issue is any issue that adversely affects the global community and environment, such as environmental issues, political crisis, social issues and economic crisis. Global issues range in severity from minor issues that affect everyone to global catastrophic risks that threaten the existence of the entire human race or its society. Solutions to global issues generally require cooperation among nations.[1] In their book Global Issues,[2] Hite and Seitz emphasize that global issues are qualitatively different from international affairs and that the former arise from growing international interdependencies which makes the issues themselves interdependent.[3] It is speculated that our global interconnectedness, instead of (only) making us more resilient, makes us more vulnerable to global catastrophe.[4] Global issues{{Further|List of global issues}}Presented below are issues relevant to the whole world today. Artificial intelligence arms raceAn is a competition between two or more states to have its military forces equipped with the best "artificial intelligence" (AI). Since the mid-2010s, many analysts have argued that such a global arms race for better artificial intelligence has already begun. According to Siemens, worldwide military spending on robotics was 5.1 billion USD in 2010 and 7.5 billion USD in 2015.[5][6] China became a top player in artificial intelligence research in the 2010s. According to the Financial Times, in 2016, for the first time, China published more AI papers than the entire European Union. When restricted to number of AI papers in the top 5% of cited papers, China overtook the United States in 2016 but lagged behind the European Union. 23% of the researchers presenting at the 2017 American Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) conference were Chinese.[7] Eric Schmidt, the former chairman of Alphabet, has predicted China will be the leading country in AI by 2025.[8]
Global catastrophic risk{{Main|Global catastrophic risk}}{{see|World Scientists' Warning to Humanity}}A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event which could damage human well-being on a global scale,[9] even crippling or destroying modern civilization.[10] An event that could cause human extinction or permanently and drastically curtail humanity's potential is known as an existential risk.[11] Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks, caused by humans (technology, governance, climate change), and natural or external risks.[10] Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence and destructive biotechnology or nanotechnology. Insufficient or malign global governance creates risks in the social and political domain, such as a global war, including nuclear holocaust, bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms, cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructure like the electrical grid; or the failure to manage a natural pandemic. Problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance include global warming, environmental degradation, including extinction of species, famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution, human overpopulation, crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture. Examples of non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event, a supervolcanic eruption, a lethal gamma-ray burst, a geomagnetic storm destroying electronic equipment, natural long-term climate change, hostile extraterrestrial life, or the predictable Sun transforming into a red giant star engulfing the Earth. Need of disarmament{{Main|Disarmament}}Disarmament is the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons. Disarmament generally refers to a country's military or specific type of weaponry. Disarmament is often taken to mean total elimination of weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear arms. General and Complete Disarmament was defined by the United Nations General Assembly as the elimination of all WMD, coupled with the “balanced reduction of armed forces and conventional armaments, based on the principle of undiminished security of the parties with a view to promoting or enhancing stability at a lower military level, taking into account the need of all States to protect their security.”[12]Global warming{{Main|Global warming}}Global warming is a long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system, an aspect of climate change shown by temperature measurements and by multiple effects of the warming.[13][14] The term commonly refers to the mainly human-caused observed warming since pre-industrial times and its projected continuation,[15] though there were also much earlier periods of global warming.[16] In the modern context the terms global warming and climate change are commonly used interchangeably,[17] but climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes to precipitation and impacts that differ by region.[18][19] Many of the observed warming changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record, and in historical and paleoclimate proxy records of climate change over thousands to millions of years.[13]Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region.[20][21] Ongoing and anticipated effects include rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion of deserts in the subtropics.[22] Future warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, wildfires, heavy rainfall with floods, and heavy snowfall;[23] ocean acidification; and massive extinctions of species due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels.[24]Migration of animals has been a serious situation, the effects from Global Warming are messing with animals, their habitats, and when animals migrate. Studies show that in the future, changes will happen to how animals forage in the micro and macro habitat. A selection of these animals could become climate change sensitive species, for example high-alpine birds.Because the climate system has a large "inertia" and greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere for a long time, many of these effects will persist for not only decades or centuries, but tens of thousands of years.[25] Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[26] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change.[27] Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required[28] and that global warming should be limited to well below {{convert|2.0|C-change|F-change|1}} compared to pre-industrial levels,{{efn |Earth has already experienced almost 1/2 of the {{convert|2.0|C-change|F-change|1}} described in the Cancún Agreement. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about {{convert|0.8|C-change|F-change|1}} with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades.[29]}} with efforts made to limit warming to {{convert|1.5|C-change|1}}.[30] Some scientists call into question climate adaptation feasibility, with higher emissions scenarios,[31] or the two degree temperature target.[32] Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing. A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed that a median of 54% of all respondents asked consider it "a very serious problem." Significant regional differences exist, with Americans and Chinese (whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions) among the least concerned.[33] Most of the habitat selection that was studied was affected by grassland cover. An issue at the footnote of global warming is ocean acidification, it is an issue today regarding the rising amounts of acidity in both surface and deeper waters that threaten biological and biochemical processes. The role of the ocean is a major role in climate regulation, yet ocean acidification is not looked at as a big deal when it comes to global warming. It alters marine ecosystems which include destroying a wide array of marine ecosystem services. There is no policy, international or nationally, to help with ocean acidification. Although, it is a global issue, ocean acidification will have great effects along coastlines and in coral reefs. Some people think that ocean acidification can be dealt with through UNFCCC, this is thought because climate changes is causing ocean acidification because of increase of CO2 in the atmosphere, but some do not agree. There are multiple reasons why nothing has been done on a larger scale regarding ocean acidification, such as the fact that it is not well understood scientifically. Also, the impacts may be felt locally but the problem is a global issue and cannot be dealt with easily. More people need to realize the problems of ocean acidification; coral reefs are becoming bleached and more animals are becoming extinct because it is not a livable habit for aquatic animals. [34] Human impact on the environment{{Main|Human impact on the environment}}Human impact on the environment (or anthropogenic impact on the environment) includes changes to biophysical environments[35] and ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources[36][37] caused directly or indirectly by humans, including global warming,[35][38] environmental degradation[35] (such as ocean acidification[35][39]), mass extinction and biodiversity loss,[40][41][42][43] ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society is causing severe effects, which become worse as the problem of human overpopulation continues.[44] Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale include human reproduction,[45] overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation, to name but a few. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss pose an existential risk to the human race,[46][47] and overpopulation causes those problems.[48]People are mostly malnourished in countries where the population is growing very rapidly, like third world countries that do not have access to birth controls or family planning. Overpopulation is a growing issue among many people, at a growing rate of 1.2%, the population is projected to double to 14 billion people in 60 years. It is believed that the earths carrying capacity is going to be around 14 billion people because of the foot shortages most of the world's population is already experiencing. More than 66% of the world's population is malnourished or starving according the World Health Organization. In 1950 only 20% of the world's population was recorded as malnourished or starving, the percentage has more than tripled, which is alarming. Natural resources that are becoming critically low due to over harvesting are; oil, natural gas, and coal, once these resources run out the earth's population could drop from 14 billion to 2 billion. It is important that humans start recycling and reducing the amount of natural resources, in doing this we can hopefully prolong the quality and sustainability of life on earth. .[49]Nuclear proliferation{{Main|Nuclear proliferation}}Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclear weapons, fissionable material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT. Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons, as governments fear that more countries with nuclear weapons will increase the possibility of nuclear warfare (up to and including the so-called "countervalue" targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states. Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017.[50] One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are recognized as nuclear weapon states while all other states are treated as non-nuclear-weapon states who can only join the treaty if they forswear nuclear weapons.[51] Weapons of mass destruction{{Main|Weapon of mass destruction}}A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a nuclear, radiological, chemical, biological, or any other weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans or cause great damage to human-made structures (e.g., buildings), natural structures (e.g., mountains), or the biosphere. The scope and usage of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Originally coined in reference to aerial bombing with chemical explosives during World War II, it has later come to refer to large-scale weaponry of other technologies, such as chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear. Potential for World War III{{Main|World War III}}World War III (WWIII or WW3) and the Third World War are names given to a hypothetical third worldwide large-scale military conflict subsequent to World War I and World War II. The term has been in use since at least as early as 1941. Some have applied it loosely to refer to limited or smaller conflicts such as the Cold War or the War on Terror, while others have operated under the assumption that such a conflict would surpass both prior world wars in both the level of its widespread scope and of its overall destructive impact.[52]Because of the development and use of nuclear weapons near the end of World War II and their subsequent acquisition and deployment by many countries, the potential risk of a nuclear devastation of Earth's civilization and life is a common theme in speculations of a Third World War. Another major concern is that biological warfare could cause a very large number of casualties, either intentionally or inadvertently by an accidental release of a biological agent, the unexpected mutation of an agent, or its adaptation to other species after use. High-scale apocalyptic events like these, caused by advanced technology used for destruction, could potentially make Earth's surface uninhabitable. Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been "the war to end all wars," as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the inter-war period between the two world wars, WWI was typically referred to simply as "The Great War." The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already "outgrown" the need for such widespread global wars. With the advent of the Cold War in 1945 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years, the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as Mutually Assured Destruction ("MAD") had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet. See also
Notes{{Notelist}}References1. ^{{cite book|last1=Bhargava|first1=Vinay|title=Global issues for global citizens : an introduction to key development challenges|date=2006|publisher=World Bank|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=9780821367315|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABOUTUS/Resources/Chapter1.pdf|accessdate=8 January 2017}} 2. ^[https://books.google.com/books/about/Global_Issues.html?id=SilcCwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q&f=false Global Issues] 3. ^"Global Issues (2012), Foreword" 4. ^{{cite web | last=Hotchkiss | first=Michael | title=A Risky Proposition: Has global interdependence made us vulnerable? | website=Princeton University | date=2014-12-01 | url=https://www.princeton.edu/news/2014/12/01/risky-proposition-has-global-interdependence-made-us-vulnerable | access-date=2018-01-18}} 5. ^{{cite news|title=Getting to grips with military robotics|url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21735478-autonomous-robots-and-swarms-will-change-nature-warfare-getting-grips|accessdate=7 February 2018|work=The Economist|date=25 January 2018|language=en}} 6. ^{{cite web|title=Autonomous Systems: Infographic|url=https://www.siemens.com/innovation/en/home/pictures-of-the-future/digitalization-and-software/autonomous-systems-infographic.html|website=www.siemens.com|accessdate=7 February 2018|language=en}} 7. ^1 {{cite news|last1=Kopf|first1=Dan|title=China is rapidly closing the US’s lead in AI research|url=https://qz.com/1197174/china-is-the-rising-artificial-intelligence-power/|accessdate=7 February 2018|work=Quartz|date=2018}} 8. ^{{cite news|title=The battle for digital supremacy|url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21738883-americas-technological-hegemony-under-threat-china-battle-digital-supremacy|accessdate=19 March 2018|work=The Economist|date=2018|language=en}} 9. ^{{cite book| authorlink= Nick Bostrom| first= Nick| last= Bostrom| date= 2008| url= http://www.global-catastrophic-risks.com/docs/Chap01.pdf| title= Global Catastrophic Risks| volume=| publisher= Oxford University Press | page = 1}} 10. ^1 {{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=BioScience|date=13 November 2017|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125}} 11. ^{{cite journal| authorlink=Nick Bostrom| first=Nick| last=Bostrom|date=March 2002| url= http://www.nickbostrom.com/existential/risks.html| title= Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards| journal= Journal of Evolution and Technology| volume=9}} 12. ^UN General Assembly, [https://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/SSOD/A-S-10-4.pdf Final Document of the First Special Session on Disarmament] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117222949/http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/SSOD/A-S-10-4.pdf |date=November 17, 2015 }}, para. 22. 13. ^1 {{cite report|url=|title=IPCC WGI AR5|author= Stocker |first=T.F. |last2= Qin |first2= D.|last3= Plattner |first3=G.-K.|last4= Tignor |first4= M. |last5= Allen |first5=S.K. |last6= Boschung |first6=J. |last7= Nauels |first7=A. |last8= Xia |first8=Y. |last9= Bex |first9=V. |last10= Midgley |first10=P.M. |page=4 |quote=Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased.|access-date= |chapter=The Physical Science Basis – Summary for Policymakers |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf }} 14. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/myths-vs-facts-denial-petitions-reconsideration-endangerment-and-cause-or-contribute|title=Myths vs. Facts: Denial of Petitions for Reconsideration of the Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=7 August 2017|quote=The U.S. Global Change Research Program, the National Academy of Sciences, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have each independently concluded that warming of the climate system in recent decades is "unequivocal". This conclusion is not drawn from any one source of data but is based on multiple lines of evidence, including three worldwide temperature datasets showing nearly identical warming trends as well as numerous other independent indicators of global warming (e.g., rising sea levels, shrinking Arctic sea ice).|date=2016-08-25 }} 15. ^{{cite report|url=|title=IPCC SYR AR5 |author= Mach |first=Katharine J. |last2= Serge |first2= Planton |last3= von Stechow |first3= Christoph |page=124 |quote=Global warming refers to the gradual increase, observed or projected, in global surface temperature, as one of the consequences of radiative forcing caused by anthropogenic emissions. {WGIII} |access-date= |chapter= Annex II Glossary |year=2014 |chapter-url=http://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_Annexes.pdf }} 16. ^{{cite report|url=|title=IPCC WGI AR5|author=Masson-Delmotte |first= Valérie |last2= Schulz |first2= Michael |pages=389, 399–400 |quote=The PETM [around 55.5–55.3 million years ago] was marked by ... global warming of 4°C to 7°C ..... Deglacial global warming occurred in two main steps from 17.5 to 14.5 ka [thousand years ago] and 13.0 to 10.0 ka. |access-date= |chapter= 5: Information from Paleoclimate Archives |year=2013|chapter-url=http://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter05_FINAL.pdf }} 17. ^{{cite web | last=Shaftel | first=Holly | title=What's in a name? Weather, global warming and climate change | website=NASA Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet | date= January 2016 | url=https://climate.nasa.gov/resources/global-warming |quote='Climate change' and 'global warming' are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. .... Global warming refers to the upward temperature trend across the entire Earth since the early 20th century .... Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming | access-date=12 October 2018}} 18. ^{{cite web | title=What's the difference between global warming and climate change? | website=NOAA Climate.gov | date=17 June 2015 | url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-difference-between-global-warming-and-climate-change |quote=Global warming refers only to the Earth’s rising surface temperature, while climate change includes warming and the 'side effects' of warming—like melting glaciers, heavier rainstorms, or more frequent drought. Said another way, global warming is one symptom of the much larger problem of human-caused climate change.| access-date=15 October 2018}} 19. ^{{cite report|url=|title=IPCC SYR AR5 |author= Mach |first=Katharine J. |last2= Serge |first2= Planton |last3= von Stechow |first3= Christoph |page=120 |quote=Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. .... {WGI, II, III} |access-date= |chapter= Annex II Glossary |year=2014 |chapter-url=http://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_Annexes.pdf }} 20. ^{{Cite web|url=https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-TS_FINAL.pdf|title=IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Technical Summary|last=Field|first=Christopher B.|last2=Barros|first2=Vicente R.|date=|publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |pages=44–46|access-date=|last3=Mach|first3=Katharine J.|last4=Mastrandrea|first4=Michael D.|display-authors=et. al}} 21. ^Solomon et al., Technical Summary,Section TS.5.3: Regional-Scale Projections, in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG1|2007}}. 22. ^{{Cite journal|last=Zeng|first=Ning|last2=Yoon|first2=Jinho|date=1 September 2009|title=Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=36|issue=17|page=L17401|doi=10.1029/2009GL039699|issn=1944-8007|bibcode=2009GeoRL..3617401Z}} 23. ^On snowfall* {{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=123671588|title=Get This: Warming Planet Can Mean More Snow|date=15 February 2010|author=Christopher Joyce|publisher=NPR}}* {{cite news|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-03-global-snowstorms-scientists.html|title=Global warming means more snowstorms: scientists|date=1 March 2011}}* {{cite web|url=http://www.skepticalscience.com/Record-snowfall-disproves-global-warming.htm|title=Does record snowfall disprove global warming?|accessdate=14 December 2014|date=9 July 2010}} 24. ^{{Cite journal|last=Battisti|first=David S.|last2=Naylor|first2=Rosamond L.|date=9 January 2009|title=Historical Warnings of Future Food Insecurity with Unprecedented Seasonal Heat|journal=Science|language=en|volume=323|issue=5911|pages=240–44|doi=10.1126/science.1164363|issn=0036-8075|pmid=19131626}} 25. ^{{cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Peter U.|title=Consequences of twenty-first-century policy for multi-millennial climate and sea-level change|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|date=8 February 2016|volume=6|issue=4|pages=360–69|bibcode=2016NatCC...6..360C|doi=10.1038/NCLIMATE2923|via=}} 26. ^{{Cite journal | year=2011 | title=Status of Ratification of the Convention | url=http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/status_of_ratification/items/2631.php | publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change | location=UNFCCC Secretariat: Bonn, Germany | ref=harv }}. Most countries in the world are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which has adopted the {{val|2|u=°C}} limit. As of 25 November 2011, there are 195 parties (194 states and 1 regional economic integration organization (the European Union)) to the UNFCCC. 27. ^{{Cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php|title=First steps to a safer future: Introducing The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|last=|first=|date=|publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |access-date=7 August 2017|quote=Preventing "dangerous" human interference with the climate system is the ultimate aim of the UNFCCC.|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108192827/http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php|archivedate=8 January 2014|df=dmy-all}} 28. ^{{Cite journal | year=2011 | title=Conference of the Parties – Sixteenth Session: Decision 1/CP.16: The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (English): Paragraph 4 | publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change | location=UNFCCC Secretariat: Bonn, Germany | page=3 | url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf#page=2 | format=PDF | ref=harv}} "(...) deep cuts in global greenhouse gas emissions are required according to science, and as documented in the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, with a view to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions so as to hold the increase in global average temperature below {{val|2|u=°C}} above preindustrial levels" 29. ^{{Cite book| publisher = The National Academies Press| isbn = 978-0-309-14585-5| title = America's Climate Choices| location = Washington, DC| year = 2011| url = http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12781&page=1| page = 15| quote = The average temperature of the Earth's surface increased by about {{convert|1.4|F-change|1}} over the past 100 years, with about {{convert|1.0|F-change|1}} of this warming occurring over just the past three decades.| doi = 10.17226/12781}} 30. ^* {{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/ |title=Final draft of climate deal formally accepted in Paris |last1=Sutter |first1=John D. |last2=Berlinger |first2=Joshua |date=12 December 2015 |publisher=CNN |access-date=12 December 2015}}* {{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/paris-climate-deal-key-points |title=Paris climate deal: key points at a glance |author=Vaughan, A. |date=12 December 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London and Manchester |access-date=12 December 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213005658/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/paris-climate-deal-key-points |archivedate=13 December 2015 |df=dmy}}. Archived . 31. ^{{cite journal | author1=James Hansen | author2=Makiko Sato | author3=Gary Russell | author4=Pushker Kharecha |date=September 2013 | title = Climate sensitivity, sea level and atmospheric carbon dioxide | journal = Royal Society Publishing | volume = 371 | doi = 10.1098/rsta.2012.0294 | pmid=24043864 | issue=2001 | pages=20120294 | arxiv=1211.4846 | bibcode=2013RSPTA.37120294H | pmc=3785813 }} 32. ^{{cite journal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1810141115|pmid = 30082409|pmc = 6099852|journal=PNAS|volume=115|issue=33|pages=8252–8259|title=Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene|author=Steffen|display-authors=etal |year=2018}} 33. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/11/05/global-concern-about-climate-change-broad-support-for-limiting-emissions/|title=Global Concern about Climate Change, Broad Support for Limiting Emissions|last=Stokes|first=Bruce|last2=Wike|first2=Richard|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|access-date=7 August 2017|last3=Carle|first3=Jill}} 34. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969716323014|title=ScienceDirect|website=www.sciencedirect.com|access-date=2019-04-01}} 35. ^1 2 3 {{cite web |url=https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/executive-summary/ |title=Climate Science Special Report - Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4), Volume I, Executive Summary |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |quote=This assessment concludes, based on extensive evidence, that it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century. For the warming over the last century, there is no convincing alternative explanation supported by the extent of the observational evidence. In addition to warming, many other aspects of global climate are changing, primarily in response to human activities. 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O.|date=30 May 2014 |title=The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection |url=http://static.squarespace.com/static/51b078a6e4b0e8d244dd9620/t/538797c3e4b07a163543ea0f/1401395139381/Pimm+et+al.+2014.pdf|journal= Science |volume= 344|issue=6187|page= 1246752|doi=10.1126/science.1246752 |access-date= 15 December 2016|quote=The overarching driver of species extinction is human population growth and increasing per capita consumption. |pmid=24876501}} 43. ^{{cite journal| last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R |last3=Dirzo|first3=Rodolfo|date=23 May 2017|title=Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|doi=10.1073/pnas.1704949114|pmid=28696295|pmc=5544311|volume=114|issue=30|pages=E6089–E6096}} 44. ^{{cite journal |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/04/biggest-threat-earth-many-kids/ |title=The Biggest Threat to the Earth? We Have Too Many Kids |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=22 April 2015 |journal=Wired.com |access-date=24 November 2017}} 45. ^{{cite news |last= Perkins|first=Sid|date=July 11, 2017|title=The best way to reduce your carbon footprint is one the government isn’t telling you about|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/07/best-way-reduce-your-carbon-footprint-one-government-isn-t-telling-you-about|work=Science |location= |access-date=November 29, 2017 }} 46. ^{{cite web |url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/new-climate-risk-classification-created-account-potential-existential-threats |title=New Climate Risk Classification Created to Account for Potential "Existential" Threats |date=14 September 2017 |website=Scripps Institution of Oceanography |publisher=Scripps Institution of Oceanography |access-date=24 November 2017 |quote=A new study evaluating models of future climate scenarios has led to the creation of the new risk categories “catastrophic” and “unknown” to characterize the range of threats posed by rapid global warming. Researchers propose that unknown risks imply existential threats to the survival of humanity.}} 47. ^{{Cite web |url=https://thebulletin.org/biodiversity-loss-existential-risk-comparable-climate-change9329 |title=Biodiversity loss: An existential risk comparable to climate change|author=Phil Torres |date=11 April 2016 |website=Thebulletin.org |publisher=Taylor & Francis| access-date=24 November 2017}} 48. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/climate/ |title=Human Population Growth and Climate Change |author= |website=Center for Biological Diversity |publisher=Center for Biological Diversity |access-date=24 November 2017}} 49. ^{{Cite journal|last=Pimentel|first=David|date=2012-04-01|title=World overpopulation|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9336-2|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|language=en|volume=14|issue=2|pages=151–152|doi=10.1007/s10668-011-9336-2|issn=1573-2975}} 50. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/27/north-korea-confirms-6-may-party-congress-as-nuclear-test-predicted|title=Strong sign of North Korean nuclear test as regime calls 6 May party congress|last=|first=|date=27 April 2016|work=The Guardian|access-date=|via=}} 51. ^{{Cite journal|last=Tannenwald|first=Nina|date=2013|title=Justice and Fairness in the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9d47/cdb6b49d875711b3e00298fb504aa72e82ff.pdf|journal=Ethics and International Affairs|volume=27|issue=3|pages=299–315|via=Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs|doi=10.1017/S0892679413000221}} 52. ^The New Quotable Einstein. By Alice Calaprice (2005), p. 173. External links{{Sisterlinks}} 1 : Global issues |
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