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词条 Graphene chemistry
释义

  1. Oxide

  2. Chemical modification

  3. Ligand/complex

  4. References

Graphene is the only form of carbon (or solid material) in which every atom is available for chemical reaction from two sides (due to the 2D structure). Atoms at the edges of a graphene sheet have special chemical reactivity. Graphene has the highest ratio of edge atoms of any allotrope. Defects within a sheet increase its chemical reactivity.[1] The onset temperature of reaction between the basal plane of single-layer graphene and oxygen gas is below {{convert|260|C|K|sigfig=2}}.[2] Graphene combusts at {{convert|350|C|K|sigfig=2}}.[3] Graphene is commonly modified with oxygen- and nitrogen-containing functional groups and analyzed by infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. However, determination of structures of graphene with oxygen-[4] and nitrogen-[5] functional groups requires the structures to be well controlled.

Contrary to the ideal 2D structure of graphene, chemical applications of graphene need either structural or chemical irregularities, as perfectly flat graphene is chemically inert.[6] In other words, the definition of an ideal graphene is different in chemistry and physics.

Graphene placed on a soda-lime glass (SLG) substrate under ambient conditions exhibited spontaneous n-doping (1.33 × 1013 e/cm2) via surface-transfer. On p-type copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) semiconductor itself deposited on SLG n-doping reached 2.11 × 1013 e/cm2.[7]

Oxide

{{further|Graphite oxide}}

Using paper-making techniques on dispersed, oxidized and chemically processed graphite in water, monolayer flakes form a single sheet and create strong bonds. These sheets, called graphene oxide paper, have a measured tensile modulus of 32 GPa.[8] The chemical property of graphite oxide is related to the functional groups attached to graphene sheets. These can change the polymerization pathway and similar chemical processes.[9] Graphene oxide flakes in polymers display enhanced photo-conducting properties.[10] Graphene is normally hydrophobic and impermeable to all gases and liquids (vacuum-tight). However, when formed into graphene oxide-based capillary membrane, both liquid water and water vapor flow through as quickly as if the membrane was not present.[11]

Chemical modification

{{technical|section |date=December 2013}}

Refluxing single-layer graphene oxide (SLGO) in solvents leads to size reduction and folding of individual sheets as well as loss of carboxylic group functionality, by up to 20%, indicating thermal instabilities of SLGO sheets dependent on their preparation methodology. When using thionyl chloride, acyl chloride groups result, which can then form aliphatic and aromatic amides with a reactivity conversion of around 70–80%.

Hydrazine reflux is commonly used for reducing SLGO to SLG(R), but titrations show that only around 20–30% of the carboxylic groups are lost, leaving a significant number available for chemical attachment. Analysis of such SLG(R) reveals that the system is unstable. Using a room temperature stirring with HCl (< 1.0 M) leads to around 60% loss of COOH functionality. Room temperature treatment of SLGO with carbodiimides leads to the collapse of the individual sheets into star-like clusters that exhibited poor subsequent reactivity with amines (c. 3–5% conversion of the intermediate to the final amide).[13] It is apparent that conventional chemical treatment of carboxylic groups on SLGO generates morphological changes of individual sheets that leads to a reduction in chemical reactivity, which may potentially limit their use in composite synthesis. Therefore, chemical reactions types have been explored. SLGO has also been grafted with polyallylamine, cross-linked through epoxy groups. When filtered into graphene oxide paper, these composites exhibit increased stiffness and strength relative to unmodified graphene oxide paper.[14]

Full hydrogenation from both sides of graphene sheet results in graphane, but partial hydrogenation leads to hydrogenated graphene.[15] Similarly, both-side fluorination of graphene (or chemical and mechanical exfoliation of graphite fluoride) leads to fluorographene (graphene fluoride),[16] while partial fluorination (generally halogenation) provides fluorinated (halogenated) graphene.

Ligand/complex

Graphene can be a ligand to coordinate metals and metal ions by introducing functional groups. Structures of graphene ligands are similar to e.g. metal-porphyrin complex, metal-phthalocyanine complex and metal-phenanthroline complex. Copper and nickel ions can be coordinated with graphene ligands.[17][18]

References

1. ^{{cite journal |last=Denis |first=P. A. |last2=Iribarne |first2=F. |title=Comparative Study of Defect Reactivity in Graphene |doi=10.1021/jp4061945 |journal=Journal of Physical Chemistry C |volume=117 |pages=19048–19055 |year=2013 |issue=37}}
2. ^{{cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Y. |last2=Murota |first2=K |last3=Fujita |first3=R |last4=Kim |first4=J |title=Subnanometer vacancy defects introduced on graphene by oxygen gas |doi=10.1021/ja4117268 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=136 |issue=6 |pages=2232–2235 |year=2014 |display-authors=etal |pmid=24460150}}
3. ^{{cite journal |last=Eftekhari |first=A. |last2=Jafarkhani |first2=P. |title=Curly Graphene with Specious Interlayers Displaying Superior Capacity for Hydrogen Storage |doi=10.1021/jp410044v |journal=Journal of Physical Chemistry C |volume=117 |pages=25845–25851 |year=2013 |issue=48}}
4. ^{{cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Y. |last2=Yasuda |first2=H. |last3=Murota |first3=K. |last4=Nakamura |first4=M. |last5=Sodesawa |first5=T. |last6=Sato |first6=S. |title=Analysis of heat-treated graphite oxide by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |doi=10.1007/s10853-013-7630-0 |journal=Journal of Materials Science |volume=48 |pages=8171–8198 |year=2013 |issue=23|bibcode=2013JMatS..48.8171Y }}
5. ^{{cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Y. |last2=Kim |first2=J. |last3=Murota |first3=K. |last4=Matsuo |first4=S. |last5=Sato |first5=S. |title=Nitrogen-containing graphene analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2013.12.061 |journal=Carbon |volume=70 |pages=59–74 |year=2014}}
6. ^{{cite journal |last=Eftekhari |first=A. |last2=Garcia |first2=H. |title=The Necessity of Structural Irregularities for the Chemical Applications of Graphene |doi=10.1016/j.mtchem.2017.02.003 |journal=Materials Today Chemistry |volume=4 |pages=1–16 |year=2017 }}
7. ^{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=D. M. N. M.|last2=Ashraf|first2=A.|last3=Dwyer|first3=D.|last4=Kisslinger|first4=K.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Pang|first6=Y.|last7=Efstathiadis|first7=H.|last8=Eisaman|first8=M. D.|date=2016-02-12|title=Spontaneous and strong multi-layer graphene n-doping on soda-lime glass and its application in graphene-semiconductor junctions|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|pages=21070|doi=10.1038/srep21070|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4751575|pmid=26867673|bibcode=2016NatSR...621070D}}
8. ^{{cite web |url=http://invo.northwestern.edu/technologies/detail/graphene-oxide-paper |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602213039/http://invo.northwestern.edu/technologies/detail/graphene-oxide-paper |archivedate=2 June 2016 |title=Graphene Oxide Paper |publisher=Northwestern University |accessdate=28 February 2011}}
9. ^{{cite journal |last=Eftekhari |first=Ali |last2=Yazdani |first2=Bahareh |title=Initiating electropolymerization on graphene sheets in graphite oxide structure |journal=Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry |volume=48 |pages=2204–2213 |year=2010 |doi=10.1002/pola.23990 |bibcode=2010JPoSA..48.2204E |issue=10}}
10. ^{{cite journal |last=Nalla |first=Venkatram |last2=Polavarapu |first2=L |last3=Manga |first3=KK |last4=Goh |first4=BM |last5=Loh |first5=KP |last6=Xu |first6=QH |last7=Ji |first7=W |title=Transient photoconductivity and femtosecond nonlinear optical properties of a conjugated polymer–graphene oxide composite |journal=Nanotechnology |volume=21 |issue=41 |page=415203 |year=2010 |pmid=20852355 |doi=10.1088/0957-4484/21/41/415203 |bibcode=2010Nanot..21O5203N}}
11. ^{{cite journal |title=Unimpeded permeation of water through helium-leak-tight graphene-based membranes |doi=10.1126/science.1211694 |year=2012 |journal=Science |volume=335 |issue=6067 |pages=442–4 |pmid=22282806 |arxiv=1112.3488 |last=Nair |first=R. R. |last2=Wu |first2=H. A. |last3=Jayaram |first3=P. N. |last4=Grigorieva |first4=I. V. |last5=Geim |first5=A. K. |bibcode=2012Sci...335..442N}}
12. ^{{cite journal |first=Sandip |last=Niyogi |first2=Elena |last2=Bekyarova |first3=Mikhail E. |last3=Itkis |first4=Jared L. |last4=McWilliams |first5=Mark A. |last5=Hamon |first6=Robert C. |last6=Haddon |title=Solution Properties of Graphite and Graphene |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=128 |pages=7720–7721 |year=2006 |doi=10.1021/ja060680r |pmid=16771469 |issue=24}}
13. ^{{cite journal |first=Raymond L.D. |last=Whitby |first2=Alina |last2=Korobeinyk |first3=Katya V. |last3=Glevatska |title=Morphological changes and covalent reactivity assessment of single-layer graphene oxides under carboxylic group-targeted chemistry |journal=Carbon |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=722–725 |year=2011 |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2010.09.049}}
14. ^{{cite journal |first=Sungjin |last=Park |first2=Dmitriy A. |last2=Dikin |first3=SonBinh T. |last3=Nguyen |first4=Rodney S. |last4=Ruoff |title=Graphene Oxide Sheets Chemically Cross-Linked by Polyallylamine |journal=J. Phys. Chem. C |volume=113 |pages=15801–15804 |year=2009 |doi=10.1021/jp907613s |issue=36}}
15. ^{{cite journal |first=D. C. |last=Elias |last2=Nair |first2=R. R. |last3=Mohiuddin |first3=T. M. G. |last4=Morozov |first4=S. V. |last5=Blake |first5=P. |last6=Halsall |first6=M. P. |last7=Ferrari |first7=A. C. |last8=Boukhvalov |first8=D. W. |last9=Katsnelson |first9=M. I. |last10=Geim |first10=A. K. |last11=Novoselov |first11=K. S. |title=Control of Graphene's Properties by Reversible Hydrogenation: Evidence for Graphane |journal=Science |year=2009 |volume=323 |doi=10.1126/science.1167130 |pmid=19179524 |issue=5914 |bibcode=2009Sci...323..610E |pages=610–3 |arxiv=0810.4706}}
16. ^{{cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=J. C. |last2=de Lima |first2=D. B. |last3=Assali |first3=L. V. C. |last4=Justo |first4=J. F. |title=Group IV graphene- and graphane-like nanosheets |journal=J. Phys. Chem. C |date=2011 |volume=115 |issue=27 |pages=13242–13246 |doi=10.1021/jp203657w|arxiv=1204.2875 }}
17. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2011.03.056 |title=Exfoliated graphene ligands stabilizing copper cations |journal=Carbon |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=3375–3378 |year=2011 |last1=Yamada |first1=Y. |last2=Miyauchi |first2=M. |last3=Kim |first3=J. |last4=Hirose-Takai |first4=K. |last5=Sato |first5=Y. |last6=Suenaga |first6=K. |last7=Ohba |first7=T. |last8=Sodesawa |first8=T. |last9=Sato |first9=S.}}
{{cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Y. |last2=Miyauchi |first2=M. |last3=Jungpil |first3=K. |title=Exfoliated graphene ligands stabilizing copper cations |journal=Carbon |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2011.03.056 |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=3375–3378 |display-authors=etal |year=2011}}
18. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2014.03.036 |title=Functionalized graphene sheets coordinating metal cations |journal=Carbon |volume=75 |pages=81–94 |year=2014 |last1=Yamada |first1=Y. |last2=Suzuki |first2=Y. |last3=Yasuda |first3=H. |last4=Uchizawa |first4=S. |last5=Hirose-Takai |first5=K. |last6=Sato |first6=Y. |last7=Suenaga |first7=K. |last8=Sato |first8=S.}}
{{cite journal |title=Functionalized graphene sheets coordinating metal cations |last=Yamada |first=Y. |last2=Suzuki |first2=Y. |last3=Yasuda |first3=H. |journal=Carbon |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2014.03.036 |volume=75 |pages=81–94 |display-authors=etal |year=2014}}

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