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词条 Indus-Mesopotamia relations
释义

  1. Geography

  2. Exchanges

     Mesopotamian imports into the Indus  Indus imports into Mesopotamia  Scripts and languages 

  3. Chronology

  4. See also

  5. References

  6. Sources

Indus-Mesopotamia relations seem to have developed during the second half of 3rd millennium BCE, until they came to a halt with the extinction of the Indus valley civilization after around 1900 BCE.[5] Mesopotamia had already been an intermediary in the trade of Lapis Lazuli between the South Asia and Egypt since at least about 3200 BCE, in the context of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.[6][7]

Geography

Sea levels have been rising about 100 meters over the last 15,000 years until modern times, with the effect that coast lines have been receding vastly. This is especially the case of the coast lines of the Indus and Mesopotamia, which were originally only separated by a distance of about 1000 kilometers, compared to 2000 kilometers today.[8] In the 3rd millennium BCE, the distance between the coasts of the Mesopotamian civilizations and the Indus would have been much shorter than it is today.[8] In particular the Persian Gulf, which is only about 30 meters deep today, would have been at least partially dry, and would have formed an extension of the Mesopotamian basin.[8]

Exchanges

Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago.[12]

Mesopotamian imports into the Indus

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| image1 = Gebel el-Arak Knife ivory handle (front top part detail).jpg
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Uruk period Sumerian king as Master of Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, dated circa 3300-3200 BCE. Louvre Museum, reference E 11517.[9][10]

| image2 = Indus valley civilization "Gilgamesh" seal (2500-1500 BC).jpg
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Indus valley civilization seal, with man fighting two lions (2500-1500 BC).[11][12]

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In the archaeological sites of the Indus valley civilization, twenty-four stone haematite weights of the Mesopotamian barrel-shaped type were found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.[17] Some Indus seals seem to show Mesopotamian influence, as in the Sumerian "Gilgamesh" motif of a man fighting two lions (2500-1500 BCE).[11][12][13] A few cylinder seals have been found in Indus valley sites, which suggest Mesopotamian influence: they were probably made locally, but they use Mesopotamian motifs.[14] One such cylinder seal, the Kalibangan seal, shows a battle between men in the presence of centaurs.[15][23] Other seals show processions of animals.[16]

Indus imports into Mesopotamia

Clove heads, though to originate from the Moluccas in Malay Archipelago were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in Terqa.[24] Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BCE.[24] Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella Pyrum and Fasciolaria Trapezium, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500-2000 BCE.[25] Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600-2450.[26] In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developped by the Harappans.[27][28] Lapis Lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the Naqada II period (circa 3200 BCE). Lapis Lazuli probably originated in northern Afghanistan, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesapotamia, and then Egypt.[29][30]

Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur and Babylon.[31][32][33][34][35][36] The water buffalos which appears on the Akkadian cylinder seals from the time of Naram-Sin (circa 2250 BCE), may have been imported to Mesopotamia from the Indus as a result of trade.[37][38][39]

Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley.[26]{{quote|‘The ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan, the ships from Dilmun, he made tie-up alongside the quay of Akkad’|Inscription by Sargon of Akkad (ca.2270-2215 BCE)[40][41]}}

After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Gudea, the ruler of Lagash, is recorded as having imported "transluscent carnelian" from Meluhha.[26] Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia.[26] About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with Harappa and often use Harappan symbols or writing.[26]

{{clear}}

Scripts and languages

{{See also|Elamo-Dravidian languages}}

Similarities between Proto-Elamite (circa 3000 BCE) and especially Linear Elamite (2300-2000 BCE) scripts with the Indus script have been noted, although it has not been possible to decipher any of them.[56][57] Proto-Elamite only starts to be readable from around 2300 BCE, when Elamite adopted the cuneiform system.[56] These Elamite script are said to be "technically similar" to the Indus script.[56] On comparing the Linear Elamite to the Indus script, a number of similar symbols have also been found.[58]

The Meluhhan language was not readily understandable at the Akkadian court, since interpretators of the Meluhhan language are known to have resided in Mesopotamia, particularly through an Akkadian seal with the inscription "Shu-ilishu, interpreter of the Meluhhan language".[59][60][61]

Chronology

Sargon of Akkad (circa 2300 or 2250 BCE), was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make an explicit reference to the region of Meluhha, which is generally understood as being the Baluchistan or the Indus area.[24] Sargon mentions the presence of Meluhha, Magan, and Dilmun ships at Akkad.[24]

These dates correspond roughly to the Mature Harappan phase, dated from around 2600 to 2000 BCE.[24] The dates for the main occupation of Mohenjo-Daro are about Mohenjo-daro from 2350 to 2000/1900 BCE.[24]

It has been suggested that the early Mesopotamian Empire preceded the emergence of the Harappan civilization, and that trade and cultural exchanges may have facilitated the emergence of Harappan culture.[24] Alternatively, it is possible that the Harappan culture had already emerged by the time trade with Mesopotamia started.[24] Uncertainties in dating make it impossible to establish a clear order at this stage.[24]

Exchanges seem to have been most significant during the Akkadian Empire and Ur III periods, and to have waned afterwards together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization.[63]

Large-scale exchanges recovered with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, circa 500 BCE.

See also

  • Egypt-Mesopotamia relations

References

{{Commons category|Indus-Mesopotamia relations}}
1. ^{{cite web |title=Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum |website=Louvre Museum}}
2. ^{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=12067 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
3. ^{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Brian A. |last2=Feldman |first2=Marian H. |title=Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9781614510352 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4DoBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |language=en}}
4. ^{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Andrew |title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations |date=2015 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=9781780235417 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |language=en}}
5. ^{{cite book |last1=Stiebing |first1=William H. |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781315511160 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
6. ^{{cite book |last1=Demand |first1=Nancy H. |title=The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444342345 |pages=71-72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71 |language=en}}
7. ^{{cite book |last1=Rowlands |first1=Michael J. |title=Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521251037 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 |language=en}}
8. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978 1 4073 0312 3 |pages=12–14 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304/2008._The_Indus-Mesopotamia_relationship_reconsidered_Gs_Elisabeth_During_Caspers_ |language=en}}
9. ^{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=668 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
10. ^{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Jerrol S. |title=The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference |date=1996 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=9780931464966 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA10 |pages=10-14|language=en}}
11. ^1 {{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=9780759116429 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |language=en}}
12. ^1 {{cite book |last1=Kosambi |first1=Damodar Dharmanand |title=An Introduction to the Study of Indian History |date=1975 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=9788171540389 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTvQiXVFB0gC&pg=PR64 |language=en}}
13. ^{{cite book |last1=Josh |first1=Jagat Pati |title=Memoirs Of The Archeological Survey Of India No.86; Vol.1 |date=1987 |page=76 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532743/page/n111}}
14. ^{{cite book |last1=Elisseeff |first1=Vadime |title=The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce |date=2000 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=9781571812223 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zRPbecWnkoIC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}
15. ^{{cite book |last1=Ameri |first1=Marta |last2=Costello |first2=Sarah Kielt |last3=Jamison |first3=Gregg |last4=Scott |first4=Sarah Jarmer |title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108168694 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mu9UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT255 |language=en}}
16. ^1 {{cite book |title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |pages=239-246|url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n263 |language=English}}
17. ^{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Ernest John Henry |last2=Langdon |first2=Stephen |last3=Laufer |first3=Berthold |title=Report on the excavation of the "A" cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia |date=1925 |publisher=Chicago : Field Museum of Natural History |url=https://archive.org/details/reportonexcavati11mack/page/75}}
18. ^{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Ernest John Henry |last2=Langdon |first2=Stephen |last3=Laufer |first3=Berthold |title=Report on the excavation of the "A" cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia |date=1925 |publisher=Chicago : Field Museum of Natural History |page=61 Nb.3 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportonexcavati11mack/page/60}}
19. ^{{cite book |last1=Podany |first1=Amanda H. |title=Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199798759 |page=50 |url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA50 |language=en}}
20. ^""An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in the fig deity seal. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions." in {{cite book |last1=Conference |first1=Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe International |title=South Asian Archaeology, 1989: Papers from the Tenth International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Musée National Des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France, 3-7 July 1989 |date=1992 |publisher=Prehistory Press |isbn=9781881094036 |page=227 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye2s6ZZ09S0C |language=en}}
21. ^{{cite web |title=Image of the seal with horned deity |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/sacrifice/sacrifice.html |website=www.columbia.edu}}
22. ^{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date=2003 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=9781588390431 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA403 |language=en}}
23. ^British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developped by the Harappan civilization" Photograph of the necklace in question
24. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 {{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978 1 4073 0312 3 |pages=14–17 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304/2008._The_Indus-Mesopotamia_relationship_reconsidered_Gs_Elisabeth_During_Caspers_ |language=en}}
25. ^{{cite book |last1=Gensheimer |first1=T. R. |title=The Role of shell in Mesopotamia : evidence for trade exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley |date=1984 |pages=71–72 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350}}
26. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576079072 |pages=182–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA189 |language=en}}
27. ^British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developped by the Harappan civilization" Photograph of the necklace in question
28. ^{{cite book |last1=Guimet |first1=Musée |title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan |date=2016 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=9782402052467 |page=355 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355 |language=fr}}
29. ^{{cite book |last1=Demand |first1=Nancy H. |title=The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444342345 |pages=71-72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71 |language=en}}
30. ^{{cite book |last1=Rowlands |first1=Michael J. |title=Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521251037 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 |language=en}}
31. ^{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal found in Ur BM 122187 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805148&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}
32. ^{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 123208 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=804667&partId=1&museumno=1932.1008.178&page=2 |website=British Museum}}
33. ^{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 120228 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805338&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}
34. ^{{cite book |last1=Gadd |first1=G. J. |title=Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur |date=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33779/page/n11}}
35. ^{{cite book|title=Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JTvRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|first=Amanda H.|last=Podany|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-971829-0}}
36. ^{{cite book|title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA246|quote=Square-shaped Indus seals of fired steatite have been found at a few sites in Mesopotamia.|author1=Joan Aruz|author2=Ronald Wallenfels|page=246|isbn=978-1-58839-043-1|year=2003}}
37. ^{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Andrew |title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations |date=2015 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=9781780235417 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |language=en}}
38. ^{{cite web |title=Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum |website=Louvre Museum}}
39. ^{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Brian A. |last2=Feldman |first2=Marian H. |title=Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9781614510352 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4DoBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |language=en}}
40. ^{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521011099 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHHzP4uVpn4C&pg=PA85 |language=en}}
41. ^{{cite web |title=The Indus Civilization and Dilmun, the Sumerian Paradise Land |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-indus-civilization-and-dilmun-the-sumerian-paradise-land/ |website=www.penn.museum}}
42. ^{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=13544 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
43. ^{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=13556|website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
44. ^{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=13589 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
45. ^{{cite book |last1=Guimet |first1=Musée |title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan |date=2016 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=9782402052467 |pages=354–355 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354 |language=fr}}
46. ^{{cite book |title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. |page=395 |url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n419 |language=English}}
47. ^{{cite book |last1=Nandagopal |first1=Prabhakar |title=Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat) |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978 1 78491 917 7 |url=https://www.academia.edu/37860117/Decorated_Carnelian_Beads_from_the_Indus_Civilization_Site_of_Dholavira_Great_Rann_of_Kachchha_Gujarat_ |language=en}}
48. ^{{cite web |title=Louvre Museum Official Website |url=http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not&idNotice=13532 |website=cartelen.louvre.fr}}
49. ^{{cite book |last1=Guimet |first1=Musée |title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan |date=2016 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=9782402052467 |page=355 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355 |language=fr}}
50. ^{{cite book |title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. |page=398 |url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n422 |language=English}}
51. ^{{cite web |title=Indus carnelian bead found in Nippur Mesopotamia |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324872 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}
52. ^{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date=2003 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=9781588390431 |pages=401-402 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA401 |language=en}}
53. ^{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date=2003 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=9781588390431 |pages=401-402 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA401 |language=en}}
54. ^{{cite book |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190226930 |page=353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DagXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT353 |language=en}}
55. ^{{cite web |title=Meluhha interpreter seal. Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not&idNotice=12071 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}
56. ^1 2 "The so-called Proto-Elamite script from sites such as Susa in the lowlands of eastern Mesopotamia, dating from around 3000 BCE, is undeciphered and technically similar to the Harappan script." {{cite book |last1=Ness |first1=Immanuel |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration |date=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118970584 |page=240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TyJlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |language=en}}
57. ^{{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=9780759101722 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}
58. ^{{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=9780759101722 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}
59. ^{{cite book |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |author-link1= Asko Parpola|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190226930 |page=353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DagXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT353 |language=en}}
60. ^{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576079652 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&pg=PA279 |language=en}}
61. ^{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Andrew |title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations |date=2015 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=9781780235417 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |language=en}}
62. ^{{cite book |last1=Guimet |first1=Musée |title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan |date=2016 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=9782402052467 |page=354 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354 |language=fr}}
63. ^1 {{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978 1 4073 0312 3 |pages=16–17 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304/2008._The_Indus-Mesopotamia_relationship_reconsidered_Gs_Elisabeth_During_Caspers_ |language=en}}

Sources

  • {{cite book |last1=Gadd |first1=G. J. |title=Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur |date=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33779/page/n7}}
  • {{cite book |title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n269 |language=English}}
{{Indus Valley Civilization}}{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}

2 : Akkadian Empire|Indus Valley Civilisation
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