| 词条 | International Juridical Association |
| 释义 |
| name = International Juridical Association (IJA) | native_name = | native_name_lang = | named_after = | image = | image_size = | alt = | caption = | logo = | logo_size = | logo_alt = | logo_caption = | map = | map_size = | map_alt = | map_caption = | map2 = | map2_size = | map2_alt = | map2_caption = | abbreviation = | motto = | predecessor = International Labor Defense, International Red Aid | merged = | successor = National Lawyers Guild | formation = 1931 | founder = Carol Weiss King | founding_location = New York City | extinction = December 1942 | merger = | type = | tax_id = | registration_id = | status = | purpose = | headquarters = New York City | location = 100 Fifth Avenue | coords = {{coord|40.737222|-73.993143|display=inline, title}} | region = | services = Legal | products = | methods = | fields = | membership = | membership_year = | language = English | owner = | sec_gen = | leader_title = Executive Director | leader_name = Isadore Polier | leader_title2 = Secretary | leader_name2 = Carol Weiss King | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | board_of_directors = Carol Weiss King, Osmond K. Fraenkel, Joseph Brodsky, Roy Wilkins, Paul F. Brissenden, Jerome Frank, Karl Llewelyn, Charles Erskine Scott Wood, Floyd Dell, Yetta Land | key_people = Joseph Kovner, editor | main_organ = International Juridical Association Bulletin | parent_organization = International Juridical Association (Germany) | subsidiaries = | secessions = | affiliations = | budget = | budget_year = | revenue = | revenue_year = | disbursements = | expenses = | expenses_year = | endowment = | staff = | staff_year = | volunteers = | volunteers_year = | slogan = | mission = | website = {{URL|lccn.loc.gov/75644638}} | remarks = | formerly = | footnotes = }} The International Juridical Association (IJA; 1931–1942) was an association of socially minded American lawyers, established by Carol Weiss King[1] and considered by the U.S. federal government (in the form of the U.S. House Un-American Activities Committee or HUAC) as "another early (communist) front for lawyers. The principal concern about the IJA (and, as of 1942, its successor group, the National Lawyers Guild or NLG) was that it "constituted itself an agent of a foreign principal hostile to the interests of the United States."[2][3][4] HistoryBackgroundHUAC's account of the IJA traced back to 1922, when the Communist International established the International Red Aid (Russian acronym "MOPR") to: {{quote|Render material and moral aid to the imprisoned victims of capitalism|Resolutions and Theses of the Fourth Congress of the Communist International (London: Communist Party of Great Britain, 1922) p. 87[2]}}HUAC's translation: International Red Aid (MOPR) served to protect Comintern ("subversive") agents "whenever they ran into difficulties with the law of the various countries in which they were operating."[2] In 1925, MOPR had established an American section known as the International Labor Defense (ILD). The ILD functioned until 1946, when it merged into the Civil Rights Congress (CRC), deemed a "new subversive organization" by HUAC.[2] According to HUAC, the International Juridical Association (IJA) formed in 1931 and "cooperated closely" with the ILD.[2] EstablishmentUpon her return to the states, she rented offices for the American section of the IJA in the St. Denis Building at 80 E 11th Street, New York NY 10003. Ginger stated: Within a few months, she had forty-nine names from twenty states to put on the letterhead, including not only the customary East Coast liberal names but writer Sherwood Anderson from Virginia, and two each from Tennessee and Louisiana, one each from Canada and Puerto Rico.[4] Funding ran short, so she moved the IJA's offices into her own at 100 Fifth Avenue.[4] (King's biography in The Yale Biographical Dictionary of American Law states only that she came back from Moscow and Berlin to found the International Juridical Association Bulletin.[13]) A HUAC report stated that George Anderson had helped found the IJA: George Andersen helped to found a "legal bureau" established in response to this directive in the United States in the early 1930s under the name of the International Juridical Association. He served on the national committee of this Communist-controlled offshoot of the International Labor Defense in 1942. In the same year, he was legal adviser for the Committee for Citizenship Rights, which was intended to protect Communist subversion from any penalties under the law.[3] The report also carefully notes that Anderson was an NOL member, too.[3] (Both HUAC reports document the close association of the IJA and NLG with the "American Committee for Protection of Foreign Born (1934–1952)."[2][3][13]) Merger into NLGAccording to report by HUAC on the NLG, the IJA "quietly disappeared from the American scene in the early 1940's" and merged into the NLG. As proof points, HUAC stated that the December 1942 issue of the International Juridical Association Monthly Bulletin announced the journal's merger into NLG's Lawyers Guild Review. The December 1942 issue also announced that its writers move to the board of editors of the Lawyers Guild Review and take primary responsibility for the material in its "IJA section.".[2] (A Catalogue of the Law Collection at New York University: With Selected Annotations confirms absorption by 1943.[14]) Issues championedApproachFrom inception, King felt the mission of American branch of the IJA was to champion "civil liberties and labor law problems."[4] She was very careful in envisioning how it would operate: It would not compete with the existing defense groups – the ACLU, the ILD, and the NAACP; on the contrary, it would assist them in their legal defense work. Building on the European models, she planned a legal research group that would hold forums on current legal problems, draft new social legislation, write briefs in pending cases, and publish a monthly legal bulletin on labor and civil rights law.[4] In 1932, the IJA bulletin announced further that it would support "human rights."[4] ActivitiesIn 1931, the IJA championed was that of Euel Lee AKA "Orphan Jones" (defended by Bernard Ades when King filed papers with the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case. Then, the IJA's bulletin wrote a defense of communist August Yokinen against his deportation by the U.S. Government (which followed the Yokinen Show Trial of March 1931).[4] In 1932, the IJA championed the Scottsboro Boys case before the U.S. Supreme Court by recommending the ILD's Walter Pollak as attorney. Further, it raised two constitutional issues: first, the right to counsel (denied to defendants, it argued) and, second, the right to trial by peers (since fellow African-Americans had been excluded from the jury). In May 1932, King represented the IJA with a delegation of attorneys from Johns Hopkins University and the Union Theological Seminary to investigate violent strikes in Bell County, Kentucky. Following the July 1932 arrest of Angelo Herndon in Atlanta, the IJA bulletin began covering the case, after which King helped research the case when the ILD requested help from the IJA. In the fall of 1932, IJA members King and Brodsky among others supported the presidential candidacy of CPUSA leaders William Z. Foster and James W. Ford. Also in 1932, the IJA began to champion the right of foreigners against deportation by the U.S. Government, starting with its reaction against the Dies Deportation Bill of 1932. In June 1932, U.S. Rep. Fiorello H. La Guardia (20th) introduced an anti-deportation bill based on the IJA's recommendations. In November 1932, the IJA experienced some success when the Supreme Court ordered a retrial in the Scottsboro Boys case. In December 1932, King telegrammed President Herbert Hoover and then joined a CPUSA-led Hunger March on Washington (which followed a similar march in the UK earlier that fall).[4][15] In 1933, King sent a letter of protest to the German embassy regarding the arrest of Apfel by the new Nazi government.[4] The IJA Monthly Bulletin noted his arrest and death, stating that he had been tortured.[16] The IJA helped organize an international campaign for the Nazi government to release Georgi Dimitrov after acquittal for his role in the Reichstag Fire. During that year, King, Nathan Greene, and other IJA members supported the labor cases of Abe Isserman and others by researching and writing complaints and briefs. The IJA responded to a request by defense lawyer Benjamin J. Davis Jr., the IJA agreed to review the brief of Angelo Herndon.[4] In 1934, King wrote an argument in the IJA bulletin on how to raise constitutional issues during state criminal cases. The IJA then made recommendations in the Angelo Herndon case. They organized to have Columbia University law professor Herbert Wechsler and Whitney North Seymour, former U.S. assistant solicitor general (1931–1931) write briefs. The IJA organized a luncheon in ohonor of Dr. Kurt Rosenfeld, former Prussian Minister of Justice, then in exile from Nazi Germany.[4] In May 1935, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against appeal on the Angelo Herndon case.[4] In June 1937, members of the IJA attended an ILD national conference in Washington, DC, to review the Memorial Day massacre of 1937.[4] In 1939, the IJA supported the United Shoe Workers-CIO against Bata Shoes Company, which had come under Nazi control in 1938.[4] Victories
The IJA supported the successful release of Tom Mooney, Warren Billings, and George Dimitrov.[4] The IJA supported acts of the U.S. Congress, including: Social Security Act, Wagner Labor Relations Act, Norris-LaGuardia Anti-Injunction Act, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Fair Labor Standards Act.[4] The IJA also supported Executive Order 8802, which forbids racial discrimination in defense industries.[4] OrganizationFounders and officersAccording to HUAC,[2] at inception, IJA's officers were:
According to Ginger,[4] at inception IJA's officers were:
Members
By 1935, according to Ginger,[4] members included:
By 1937, according to Ginger,[4] members included:
A 1940 report by the Municipal Civil Commission of New York revealed that the IJA's members included: Max Lowenthal, Joseph R. Brodsky, Thomas I. Emerson, Robert L. Hale, Robert W. Kenny, Carol Weiss King, Shad Polier, and Lee Pressman. (On September 17, 1950, Lowenthal testified before HUAC that the National Lawyers Guild included the following members: John J. Abt, Joseph R. Brodsky, Bartley C. Crum, Thomas I. Emerson, Robert W. Kenny, Carol Weiss King, Shad Polier, Martin Popper, and Allan Rosenberg.)[17] Further, according to the 1950 and 1959 HUAC reports, other IJA members who were both later "leaders" of the NLG and actively associated with the ILD included:
Criticism: CommunismHUAC characterized IJA as "Another early front for [communist] lawyers was the International Juridical Association ... and its members were closely interlocked with the International Labor Defense as well as the National Lawyers Guild (NLG). Among its prominent members was Alger Hiss." It saw the IJA as active defender of Communists in various kinds of lawsuits; it ascertained a pattern of that "consistently followed the Communist Party line." As early as a report of March 29, 1944, HUAC had considered the IJA a communist "front."[2] In its 1950 report on the NLG (which includes a brief description of the IJA), HUAC cited the "New York City Council Committee Investigating the Municipal Civil Service Committee" (1940–1941), which (according to HUAC) stated: The bulletins of the International Juridical Association from its very inception show that it is devoted to the defense of the Communist Party, Communists, and radical agitators and that it is not limited merely to legal research but to sharp criticism of existing governmental agencies and defense of subversive groups.[2] HUAC noted that "examination of the [IJA monthly] bulletin reveals consistent support of Communist legal cases during its entire career."[2] In a footnote in his 1952 memoir, Whittaker Chambers notes: In the early 1930's, Hiss had been a member of the International Juridical Association, of which the late Carol [Weiss] King, a habitual attorney for Communists in trouble, was a moving spirit. The International Juridical Association has been cited as subversive by the Attorney General. Also among its members: Lee Pressman, Abraham Isserman (one of the attorneys for the eleven convicted Communist leaders), Max Loewenthal (sic: should read "Max Lowenthal"), author of a recent book attacking the F.B.I.[27] PublicationsMonthly bulletinThroughout, the IJA published the International Juridical Association Monthly Bulletin, edited by Joseph Kovner and Nathan Greene (AKA "Nuddy" Greene).[2][4][28] One of the main functions of the bulletin was to mention and cover "little cases" around the country, which made the bulletin a de facto newspaper of record for such.[4] HUAC's 1950 report on the NLG noted regarding the IJA that "examination of the bulletin reveals consistent support of Communist legal cases during its entire career.[2] According to the Encyclopedia of the American Left, the IJA Bulletin was "widely considered the law journal of the Left."[29] Early content included the following:
"The bulletins go free to a mailing list of about 350 persons and organizations."[30] Archived collectionsThe Tamiment Library, whose archives include those of the Communist Party of the USA, has no single collection listed only of the IJA's monthly bulletin, although issues and mention appear in scores of other collections of personal papers, photographs, etc. According to WorldCat, libraries with full or partial archives include:[31]
See also
References1. ^{{cite web| title = Carol Weiss King| publisher = Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia| url = http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/king-carol-weiss| accessdate = 27 December 2010}} 2. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 {{cite book| title = The National Lawyers Guild: Legal Bulwark of the Communist Party| publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO)| url = https://archive.org/details/reportonnational1950unit| pages = 1 (foreign agent), 12–13 (IJA), 17 (members Fraenkel, McCabe)| date = 21 September 1950| accessdate = 1 December 2016}} 3. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book| title = Communist Legal Subversion: The Role of the Communist Lawyer| publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO)| url = https://archive.org/details/communistlegalsu1959unit| pages = 29 (Anderson), 46 (Isserman), 72 (Witt)| date = 16 February 1959| accessdate = 1 December 2016}} 4. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 {{cite book | last = Ginger| first = Ann Fagan| authorlink = Ann Fagan Ginger| title = Carol Weiss King, human rights lawyer, 1895-1952| publisher = University Press of Colorado| location = Boulder| url = http://lccn.loc.gov/92040157| year = 1993| pages = 114 (trip), 115–16 (Shapiro), 117 (Apfel), 119–120 (establishment, mission), 120 (new offices, officers), 120–121 (Orphan Jones, August Yokinen), 121–122 (Scottsboro), 123–124 (early members), 124 (human rights), 136–137 (Angelo Herndon), 137 (1932 CPUSA presidential ticket), 138–139 (anti-deportation), 141–145 (Hunger March), 146–169 (bulletin) 150 (Apfel's arrest), 158–159 (Isserman), 159–160 (little cases), 167 (Justine Wise Polier), 177–181 (Angelo Herndon brief and support), 189 (Georgi Dimitrov [as "Dimitroff"]), 191 (Kurt Rosenfeld), 230 (Memorial Day massacre of 1937), 233–234 (Max Krauthamar), 304–305 (Bata), 386–387 (victories)| isbn = 0-87081-285-8| oclc = | doi= }} 5. ^{{cite web | title = Advertisement: May 1st Dneiprostroy: 12 Thrilling Days in the U.S.S.R. with the World Tourists, Inc. | publisher = New Masses | url = https://archive.org/stream/v01n05-sep-1926-New-Masses/v07n10-apr-1932-New-Masses#page/n3/mode/2up | page = 31| date = April 1932 | accessdate = 1 December 2016}} 6. ^{{cite web| title = Advertisement: To the Soviet Union! ... World Tourists, Inc.| publisher = New Masses| url = https://archive.org/stream/v01n05-sep-1926-New-Masses/v06n12-may-1931-New-Masses#page/n1/mode/2up| page = 21| date = May 1931| accessdate = 1 December 2016}} 7. ^{{cite journal | title = The Guild Practitioner, Volume 41| publisher = National Lawyers Guild| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pelMAQAAIAAJ| page = 73| date = 1984| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 8. ^{{cite book| first = Friedrich| last = Adler| title = The Witchcraft Trial in Moscow| publisher = Labour Publications| url = https://www.marxists.org/archive/adler-friedrich/1936/trials.htm| date = 1936| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 9. ^{{cite book| first = Mohandas Karamchand| last = Gandhi| title = The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi: (21 November, 1929 - 2 April, 1930)., Volume 48| publisher = Publ. Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YBdWAAAAYAAJ| page = 313| date = 1995| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 10. ^{{cite book| first = Mahatma| last = Gandhi| title = Collected works, Volume 42| publisher = Publ. Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6AxuAAAAMAAJ| page = 468| date = 1970| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 11. ^{{cite book| first = Mahatma| last = Gandhi| title = Young India, Volume 12| publisher = Navajivan Publishing House| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wXZDAAAAYAAJ| page = 50| date = 1930| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 12. ^{{cite book| first = Vivian McGuckin| last = Raineri| title = The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda| publisher = International Publishers| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=90TtXmnwuJYC| page = 30| date = 1991| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 13. ^1 {{cite book| title = The Yale Biographical Dictionary of American Law| first = Roger K. | last = Newman| publisher = Yale University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=C364VLeAo8gC| page = 316| date = 2009| accessdate = 1 December 2016}} 14. ^{{cite book| first = Julius J.| last = Marke| title = A Catalogue of the Law Collection at New York University: With Selected Annotations| publisher = Lawbook Exchange| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wLgoiBn75P8C| pages = 1165| date = 1953| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 15. ^{{cite news| title = Red 'Hunger March' Gets Gay Send-Off: Fed and Warmly Clothed, 600 in Trucks and Cars Start for Capital Demonstration| publisher = New York Times| page = 3| date = 1 December 1932}} 16. ^{{cite journal| title = Monthly Bulletin, Volume 1| publisher = The International Juridical Association| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK88AQAAIAAJ| page = | date = | accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 17. ^{{cite book| title = FOIA document| publisher = FBI| url = https://archive.org/stream/foia_HUAC_HQ-58/HUAC_HQ-58#page/n97/mode/2up/search/lowenthal| page = 97| date = 1950| accessdate = 15 September 2017}} 18. ^{{cite book| first = Susan| last = Ware| title = Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary Completing the Twentieth Century, Volume 5| publisher = Cambridge University Press| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WSaMu4F06AQC| pages = 520| date = 2004| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 19. ^{{cite web| title = Foundations of Intelligent Tutoring Systems| publisher = Taylor & Francis| url = http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9780203761557| pages =| date =| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 20. ^{{cite book| first = Tom| last = Copeland| title = The Centralia Tragedy of 1919: Elmer Smith and the Wobblies| publisher = University of Washington Press| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K8cKidBft4cC| pages = 180| date = 2011| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 21. ^{{cite book| first = Gyeorgos C.| last = Hatonn| title = America in Peril -- An Understatement!| publisher = Phoenix Source Distributors| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IZuiGoQk_qIC| pages = 17| date = 1 December 1995| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 22. ^{{cite news| title = The Supreme Court: Questions & Answers| publisher = Time| url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834187,00.html| pages =| date = 13 August 1965| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 23. ^{{cite web| title = Abe Fortas| publisher = FBI| url = https://vault.fbi.gov/abe-fortas/Abe%20Fortas%20Part%2002%20of%2003| date =| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 24. ^{{cite book| first = G. Edward | last = White| title = Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy| publisher = Oxford University Press| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=T6S7htTSBqQC| pages = 28| date = 2004| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 25. ^{{cite book| first = Gilbert J.| last = Gall| title = Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO| publisher = SUNY Press| url = http://www.sunypress.edu/p-2934-pursuing-justice.aspx| date = 1998| pages = 18–20 (IJA)}} 26. ^Marion Dickerman and Ruth Taylor (eds.), Who's Who In Labor: The Authorized Biographies of the Men and Women Who Lead Labor in the United States and Canada and of Those Who Deal with Labor. New York: The Dryden Press, 1946; pg.286. 27. ^{{cite book| last = Chambers| first = Whittaker| authorlink = Whittaker Chambers| title = Witness| publisher = Random House| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=b1F3AAAAMAAJ| place = New York| pages = | lccn = 52005149| date = 1952| accessdate = 2 December 2016}} 28. ^{{cite web| title = Partial List of Publications| publisher = University of California, Berkeley| url = http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/collections/meiklejohn/publications.html| date = 11 December 2006| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 29. ^{{cite book| title = Encyclopedia of the American Left| publisher = Garland| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hqTaAAAAMAAJ| page = | date = 1990| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 30. ^1 2 {{cite book| title = Sweet Land of Liberty, 1931–1932| publisher = American Civil Liberties Union| url = http://debs.indstate.edu/a505s9_1932.pdf| date = June 1932| accessdate = 28 November 2016}} 31. ^{{cite web| title = Monthly bulletin - International Juridical Association.| publisher = WorldCat| url = http://www.worldcat.org/title/monthly-bulletin-international-juridical-association/oclc/2241970| date = | accessdate = 4 December 2016}} External sources
| title = The National Lawyers Guild: Legal Bulwark of the Communist Party | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO) | url = https://archive.org/details/reportonnational1950unit | pages = | date = 21 September 1950 | accessdate = 1 December 2016}}
| title = Communist Legal Subversion: The Role of the Communist Lawyer | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO) | url = https://archive.org/details/communistlegalsu1959unit | pages = | date = 16 February 1959 | accessdate = 1 December 2016}}
| last = Ginger | first = Ann Fagan | authorlink = Ann Fagan Ginger | title = Carol Weiss King, human rights lawyer, 1895-1952 | publisher = University Press of Colorado | location = Boulder | url = http://lccn.loc.gov/92040157 | year = 1993 | pages = | isbn = 0-87081-285-8 | oclc = | doi= }} 6 : Legal organizations based in the United States|McCarthyism|Organizations established in 1931|Progressivism in the United States|Political organizations in the United States|1931 establishments in the United States |
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